Nanoformulations: A Valuable Tool in the Therapy of Viral Diseases Attacking Humans and Animals

Abstract

Various viruses can be considered as one of the most frequent causes of human diseases, from mild illnesses to really serious sicknesses that end fatally. Numerous viruses are also pathogenic to animals and plants, and many of them, mutating, become pathogenic also to humans. Several cases of affecting humans by originally animal viruses have been confirmed. Viral infections cause significant morbidity and mortality in humans, the increase of which is caused by general immunosuppression of the world population, changes in climate, and overall globalization. In spite of the fact that the pharmaceutical industry pays great attention to human viral infections, many of clinically used antivirals demonstrate also increased toxicity against human cells, limited bioavailability, and thus, not entirely suitable therapeutic profile. In addition, due to resistance, a combination of antivirals is needed for life-threatening infections. Thus, the development of new antiviral agents is of great importance for the control of virus spread. On the other hand, the discovery and development of structurally new antivirals represent risks. Therefore, another strategy is being developed, namely the reformulation of existing antivirals into nanoformulations and investigation of various metal and metalloid nanoparticles with respect to their diagnostic, prophylactic, and therapeutic antiviral applications. This chapter is focused on nanoscale materials/formulations with the potential to be used for the treatment or inhibition of the spread of viral diseases caused by human immunodeficiency virus, influenza A viruses (subtypes H3N2 and H1N1), avian influenza and swine influenza viruses, respiratory syncytial virus, herpes simplex virus, hepatitis B and C viruses, Ebola and Marburg viruses, Newcastle disease virus, dengue and Zika viruses, and pseudorabies virus. Effective antiviral long-lasting and target-selective nanoformulations developed for oral, intravenous, intramuscular, intranasal, intrarectal, intravaginal, and intradermal applications are discussed.

Chronic Inflammatory Diseases, Anti-Inflammatory Agents and Their Delivery Nanosystems

“…The use of suitable DDSs allows overcoming those problems and ensuring the transfer of a drug to the infected site with consequent release under selected conditions [ 60 , 63 , 64 , 65 , 66 ]. The use of nano-scale drug carriers appears to increase drug specificity and leads to a reduction in adverse effects due to the reduced drug dose [ 67 , 68 , 69 , 70 , 71 , 72 , 73 , 74 , 75 , 76 , 77 , 78 ] (see Figure 2 ).…”

“…NanoDDS are widely investigated for cancer therapy, cardiovascular diseases treatment, anemia, and hemophilia treatment, in nutraceutical delivery, and also for neurodegenerative, infectious, autoimmune, ocular, and pulmonary diseases as well as for diagnostic, regenerative therapy, and other purposes [ 69 , 70 , 71 , 72 , 73 , 74 , 75 , 76 , 77 , 84 , 85 ].…”

Nanotechnology: an emerging approach to combat COVID-19

“…SiNPs act as scavengers and prevent virus particles from infecting the host cells. Mesoporous-SiO 2 nanoparticles have the potential to bind to enveloped viruses by hydrophobic or hydrophilic bonds and reduce the viral entry to cell [ 48 ]. A non-toxic polysaccharide, the cationic chitosan, interacts with S protein of SARS-CoV-2 and blocks the binding of spike protein to the ACE2 receptor.…”

Multivalent nanomedicines to treat COVID-19: A slow train coming

“…On the other hand, multivalent nanomedicines could be used to treat viral infections and to regulate dysfunctional immune responses. They may be able to carry out synergistic effects to block pathogens by either interfering with the direct interaction of viruses with specific host cells, or crucial entry pathways of viruses [32,33]. Therefore, a multivalent therapeutic agent could offer tunable binding affinity towards biomolecules, ligands, receptors, co-receptors, and the cell surface, thereby degrading viral RNA and inhibiting host proteins.…”

“…CoVs are particles about 60−140 nm in diameter, approximately 25 times smaller than an E. coli bacterial cell (−2.5 μm) [ 32 ]. One possibility is to target the multivalent interaction of viruses with cells, such as receptor-mediated endocytosis and direct fusion with the cell membrane.…”