Negative Parenting, Epigenetic Age, and Psychological Problems: Prospective Associations from Adolescence to Young Adulthood

Abstract

Background: Epigenetic clocks are based on DNA methylation levels of several genomic loci and have been developed as indices of biological ageing. Studies examining the effects of stressful environmental exposures have shown that stress is associated with differences between epigenetic age and chronological age (i.e., Epigenetic Age acceleration, EA). In this pre-registered longitudinal study, we examined the long-term effects of negative parenting and psychological adjustment throughout adolescence (ages 13 to 17 years) on EA in late adolescence (age 17 years) and EA changes from late adolescence to young adulthood (age 25 years). Further, we examined how (change in) EA is related to change in psychological adjustment from adolescence to young adulthood. Methods: We used data from a sample of 434 participants followed from age 13 to age 25, with saliva collected at ages 17 and 25, and we estimated EA using four commonly used epigenetic clocks. We analyzed the data in a Structural Equation Modeling framework. Results: While negative parenting was not related to EA nor change in EA, (change in) EA was related to developmental indices such as externalizing problems and self-concept clarity. Conclusions: Declining psychological well-being during young adulthood was preceded by EA.