Nitrosative Stress Biomarkers in the Non-Stimulated and Stimulated Saliva, as well as Gingival Crevicular Fluid of Patients with Periodontitis: Review and Clinical Study

Abstract

Diagnosis of periodontopathy is complex and includes defining the cause, type, stage, and grade of periodontitis. Therefore, alternative diagnostic methods are sought to indicate the progression of inflammation or to determine the effectiveness of therapy. Gingival crevicular fluid (GCF) biomarkers can be particularly useful because they most likely reflect the disease process of the periodontal tissues. However, the difficulty of collecting GCF for testing is the reason for the limited use in diagnostics. Because periodontitis is the primary source of nitrogen free radicals in the oral cavity, the aim of the study was to evaluate the biomarkers of nitrosative stress (nitric oxide, peroxynitrite, and S-nitrosothiols) in GCF, non-stimulated and stimulated saliva of 90 patients with periodontitis. The study group was divided into two subgroups, depending on the stage of the disease severity. We showed a significantly higher concentration of all assessed biomarkers in the non-stimulated and stimulated saliva of patients with periodontitis. However, significant changes in GCF has been shown only for peroxynitrite. The studied biomarkers did not correlate with clinical periodontal status, which probably results from their short-duration activity and the impact on a few factors in the oral cavity. Saliva and gingival fluid are not very useful in the differential diagnosis of periodontitis.

Comprehensive Evaluation of the Oral Health Status, Salivary Gland Function, and Oxidative Stress in the Saliva of Patients with Subacute Phase of Stroke: A Case-Control Study

“…Instruments, Warsaw, Poland). Butylated hydroxytoluene (BHT, Sigma-Aldrich, Saint Louis, MO, USA) was inserted to the obtained supernatants, in the amount of 10 μL 0.5 M BHT in acetonitrile (ACN)/1 mL of saliva, to protect the samples from oxidation processes [ 32 ]. The samples of saliva were frozen at −80 °C and stored for no more than three months for further research.…”

Total Oxidant and Antioxidant Capacity of Gingival Crevicular Fluid and Saliva in Patients with Periodontitis: Review and Clinical Study

“…On the day of the assays, saliva and GCF were slowly thawed at 4 • C. For GCF extraction, PerioPaper Strips ® (Oraflow, New York, NY, USA) were placed in Eppendorf ® (Eppendorf, Warszawa, Polska) tubes containing 0.02 M phosphate-buffered saline (PBS) (1 strip/500 µL PBS pH 7.0). The samples were mixed for 30 s in a vortex mixer and then centrifuged (4 • C, 3000× g, 5 min) [12,28].…”

“…It is believed that the disruption of the antioxidant barrier is directly responsible for oxidative/nitrosative modifications of cell components [12]. Indeed, when the antioxidant reserves are exhausted, there is no scavenging of oxygen free radicals nor their neutralization.…”

Enhanced Salivary and General Oxidative Stress in Hashimoto’s Thyroiditis Women in Euthyreosis

“…Forty percent of the total salivary antioxidant barrier is provided by bloodborne uric acid (UA) [ 5 ]. Failure of these antioxidant systems may result in the development of oral cavity diseases, including periodontitis [ 9 , 10 ], precancerous lesions [ 11 ] and cancers [ 12 ]. Previous studies showed the alteration in the salivary antioxidants barrier and the contribution of OS in the development and progression of salivary gland dysfunction in the course of other autoimmune diseases: psoriasis vulgaris, systemic sclerosis, rheumatoid arthritis, diabetes type 1, multiple sclerosis, Sjögren’s syndrome and systemic lupus erythematosus [ 13 , 14 , 15 , 16 , 17 , 18 , 19 , 20 , 21 ].…”