“…EEG and fMRI studies measure preparatory activity, suppressed distractor-evoked sensory activity, or frontoparietal attentional consequences of reactive mechanisms (Adam & Serences, 2021;Marini et al, 2016;Noonan et al, 2016;Won et al, 2020). The vast majority of these methods estimate proactive or reactive processes by behavioral or brain responses to distractors within visual search displays, but some studies examine proactive suppression before the search display using 'probe trials' or direct measurements of preparatory activity (Addleman & Störmer, 2021;Huang et al, 2021;. Given the variety of methods for measuring proactive vs. reactive suppression, it is critical to carefully distinguish between effects we observe and latent mechanisms (Anderson, 2021;Lamy, 2021; see also Rules 4,6,7).…”