Non-State Actors and the Implementation of the World Heritage Convention in Asia: Achievements, Problems, and Prospects

Abstract

The philosophy underlying the UNESCO World Heritage Convention of 1972 [WHC] consists in promoting a system of international co-operation in the context of which the States Parties commit to preserving the cultural treasures of “outstanding universal value” located within their territories. However, it is a fact that today many properties inscribed on the List set under the WHC are endangered. This paper will focus on the role played by “non-state actors” in the enforcement of the WHC. It will thus dwell upon the relationships between public and private interests, on the one hand, and between international and domestic legal orders, on the other. Its purpose is to map out and discuss the most salient problems about the involvement of non-state actors—particularly non-governmental organizations [NGOs] and private companies—in the monitoring and implementation of the WHC.

World heritage sustainable development policy & local implementation: Site management issues using a case study of Sri Ksetra at Pyu ancient cities in Myanmar

“…Such concerns are matched by WH literature which argues that the implementation of WH Policy requires attention to local context (see for example, Allen & Lennon, ; Chechi, ; Liu, ; Lixinski, ; Roders & van Oers, ; Shende, ). The discourse on WH and sustainable development traces back to the inception of the WHC, with calls for both cultural heritage and natural heritage to exercise conservation while simultaneously promoting sustainable development (see for example, Job, Becken, & Lane, ; Laina, ; Roders & van Oers, ).…”

“…The discourse on WH and sustainable development traces back to the inception of the WHC, with calls for both cultural heritage and natural heritage to exercise conservation while simultaneously promoting sustainable development (see for example, Job, Becken, & Lane, ; Laina, ; Roders & van Oers, ). The discourse is holistic, its attention encompassing consideration of interdisciplinary approaches and multiple issues as diverse as equity, peace and security, human rights, urban planning, as well as permutations of sites with varying associations of cultural and natural heritage (see for example, Blake, ; Chechi, ; Huibin, Marzuki, & Razak, ; Laina, ; Larsen & Logan, ; Roders & van Oers, , ; Zhang, Zhou, Wu, Skitmore, & Deng, ). Inherent to the calls for sustainable development are concerns over implementation of the WH system's standards within developing countries, with elements of the discourse directed to promotion of conservation and sustainable development strategies that enable greater engagement with local communities (see for example, Chechi, ; Gullino et al, ; Halim & Ishak, ; Han et al, ; Larcher et al, ; La Rosa et al, ; Liu, ; Lixinski, ; Macheka, ; Owosuyim, ; Roders & van Oers, ).…”

“…The discourse is holistic, its attention encompassing consideration of interdisciplinary approaches and multiple issues as diverse as equity, peace and security, human rights, urban planning, as well as permutations of sites with varying associations of cultural and natural heritage (see for example, Blake, ; Chechi, ; Huibin, Marzuki, & Razak, ; Laina, ; Larsen & Logan, ; Roders & van Oers, , ; Zhang, Zhou, Wu, Skitmore, & Deng, ). Inherent to the calls for sustainable development are concerns over implementation of the WH system's standards within developing countries, with elements of the discourse directed to promotion of conservation and sustainable development strategies that enable greater engagement with local communities (see for example, Chechi, ; Gullino et al, ; Halim & Ishak, ; Han et al, ; Larcher et al, ; La Rosa et al, ; Liu, ; Lixinski, ; Macheka, ; Owosuyim, ; Roders & van Oers, ). Consideration of local communities incurs identification of the stakeholders involved in management of a WH site, demarcating WH sites as venues bridging actors spanning global, national, and local levels (see for example, Allen & Lennon, ; Conradin & Hammer, ; Gullino et al, ; Iatu, Ibanescu, Stoleriu, & Munteanu, ; Nicholas & Thapa, ; Shende, ).…”

“…Complicating implementation efforts are that the accommodation of local communities in decision making makes each WH site a function of its unique local context, and thereby implies that the universal reach of the WH system depends upon a broad range of site‐specific management models requiring individual study. The result is a burgeoning scholarly literature working to delineate the various ways in which local contexts in developing countries challenge the implementation of WH Policy (see for example Chechi, ; Gullino, Beccaro, & Larcher, ; Halim & Ishak, ; Han, Yang, Liu, & Wall, ; La Rosa, Barbarossa, Privitera, & Martinico, ; Larcher, Novelli, Gullino, & Devecchi, ; Liu, ; Lixinski, ; Macheka, ; Owosuyim, ; Roders & van Oers, ). The present analysis builds upon such literature, using a case study of Sri Ksetra, a site within Pyu Ancient Cities that marks Myanmar's first WH site (UNESCO, ), to expand understanding of the ways in which the implementation of WH Policy struggles to achieve its intended goals in developing countries like Myanmar.…”

World Heritage Convention and Transnational Legal Process to Protect Indonesian Nature

“…NGOs have been recognized as facilitating the link between society, their identity, and conservation purpose; as well as advocating for environment cause. 69 Further, constructivist theory of international law recognizes NGOs for its role in facilitating dialogue and helping internalize international norms into national framework. 70 In Indonesia, other than with government officials, IUCN met and had dialogue with non-state actors when they monitored a site.…”