Occupational Exposure to Mycotoxins in Swine Production: Environmental and Biological Monitoring Approaches

Abstract

Swine production workers are exposed simultaneously to multiple contaminants. Occupational exposure to aflatoxin B1 (AFB1) in Portuguese swine production farms has already been reported. However, besides AFB1, data regarding fungal contamination showed that exposure to other mycotoxins could be expected in this setting. The present study aimed to characterize the occupational exposure to multiple mycotoxins of swine production workers. To provide a broad view on the burden of contamination by mycotoxins and the workers’ exposure, biological (urine) samples from workers (n = 25) and 38 environmental samples (air samples, n = 23; litter samples, n = 5; feed samples, n = 10) were collected. The mycotoxins biomarkers detected in the urine samples of the workers group were the deoxynivalenol-glucuronic acid conjugate (60%), aflatoxin M1 (16%), enniatin B (4%), citrinin (8%), dihydrocitrinone (12%) and ochratoxin A (80%). Results of the control group followed the same pattern, but in general with a lower number of quantifiable results (<LOQ). Besides air samples, all the other environmental samples collected presented high and diverse contamination, and deoxynivalenol (DON), like in the biomonitoring results, was the most prominent mycotoxin. The results demonstrate that the occupational environment is adding and contributing to the workers’ total exposure to mycotoxins, particularly in the case of DON. This was confirmed by the biomonitoring data and the high contamination found in feed and litter samples. Furthermore, he followed multi-biomarker approach allowed to conclude that workers and general population are exposed to several mycotoxins simultaneously. Moreover, occupational exposure is probably described as being intermittent and with very high concentrations for short durations. This should be reflected in the risk assessment process.

Occupational Exposures to Organic Dust in Irish Bakeries and a Pizzeria Restaurant

“…Similar to previous studies, different quantitative and qualitative fungal burden results were obtained from the passive and active sampling methodologies used (EDC and settled dust versus filtration sampling), and from the two sample media (MEA and DG18). Thus, it was possible to obtain a more complete picture regarding the microbial contamination biodiversity, justifying different sampling devices and sample media to be used in routine exposure assessments for fungi (as was the case for characterizing Aspergillus species) in this occupational environment [2,40,41]. Similar to the fungal characterization on MEA and DG18, azole screening also showed the presence of multiple fungal species and differences in Aspergillus sp.…”

“…There is currently a knowledge gap concerning the approach, which should be used to accomplish a suitable risk assessment methodology for mycotoxins, as toxicokinetics and toxicodynamics data for mycotoxins from exposure routes other than ingestion are lacking [42]. The mycotoxin contamination of flour can vary depending on where the wheat is harvested, and is thought to be now impacted by climate change, as the cereals used for flour production can be contaminated by different mycotoxins or with a different intensity [40,41,62]. Therefore, monitoring programs for flour contamination and workers exposure should be done regularly.…”

Mycotoxins feed contamination in a dairy farm – potential implications for milk contamination and workers' exposure in a One Health approach

“…Workers handled the feed frequently and showed exposure results through biomonitoring that corresponded with the feed contamination -the same mycotoxins showed higher concentrations in feed and urine samples. 12 Occupational exposure can happen by inhalation or by dermal contact, resulting in exposure by ingestion or through absorption. 11 Mycotoxins are not volatile, so airborne dust and fungal spores and fragments act as carriers of mycotoxins to the lungs.…”

“…9 Animal production is a setting in which occupational exposure to mycotoxins has frequently been reported and feed has been pointed out as a source of contamination in the workplace environment resulting in workers exposure by inhalation and, in some cases, also by dermal absorption. [10][11][12] Recent publications have demonstrate that, in addition to exposure to mycotoxins through food consumption, occupational environment can be responsible for adding exposure to workers exposure to mycotoxins. 12,13 The One Health approach involves a complex environmentanimal-human interaction.…”

“…[10][11][12] Recent publications have demonstrate that, in addition to exposure to mycotoxins through food consumption, occupational environment can be responsible for adding exposure to workers exposure to mycotoxins. 12,13 The One Health approach involves a complex environmentanimal-human interaction. This approach applied to dairy production takes into consideration the impact that milk can have in public health, guaranteeing food safety and establishing the preventive / control actions that should be implemented on the farm.…”