Optical Biosensors for the Detection of Rheumatoid Arthritis (RA) Biomarkers: A Comprehensive Review

Abstract

A comprehensive review of optical biosensors for the detection of biomarkers associated with rheumatoid arthritis (RA) is presented here, including microRNAs (miRNAs), C-reactive protein (CRP), rheumatoid factor (RF), anti-citrullinated protein antibodies (ACPA), interleukin-6 (IL-6) and histidine, which are biomarkers that enable RA detection and/or monitoring. An overview of the different optical biosensors (based on fluorescence, plasmon resonances, interferometry, surface-enhanced Raman spectroscopy (SERS) among other optical techniques) used to detect these biomarkers is given, describing their performance and main characteristics (limit of detection (LOD) and dynamic range), as well as the connection between the respective biomarker and rheumatoid arthritis. It has been observed that the relationship between the corresponding biomarker and rheumatoid arthritis tends to be obviated most of the time when explaining the mechanism of the optical biosensor, which forces the researcher to look for further information about the biomarker. This review work attempts to establish a clear association between optical sensors and rheumatoid arthritis biomarkers as well as to be an easy-to-use tool for the researchers working in this field.

Functional Interactions Between lncRNAs/circRNAs and miRNAs: Insights Into Rheumatoid Arthritis

“…Recently, the influences of environmental factors and geneenvironment interactions have been revealed, providing new clues on disease pathogenesis (8). Despite the tremendous research efforts made in the past few years, the precise pathogenesis and etiology are not yet completely elucidated due to the complexity of the disease, resulting in the early diagnosis of RA remains difficult, and existing common serum biomarkers still lack specificity (9,10). Approximately one third of patients with RA are serologically negative before the onset of severe clinical symptoms (2,11); thus, many patients miss the best time for early treatment, leading to severe bone and cartilage damage, as well as permanent disability.…”

Label-Free Physical Techniques and Methodologies for Proteins Detection in Microfluidic Biosensor Structures

“…Many works have a narrower scope and overview the variety of analytical methods and biosensing technologies for detecting specific biomarkers (proteins, peptides, enzymes) or pathogens: cancer biomarkers [ 135 ] (2021), [ 136 ] (2021), [ 137 ] (2021), [ 138 ] (2018), rheumatoid arthritis (Ra) biomarkers [ 139 ] (2020), Alzheimer’s biomarkers (tau-protein) [ 140 ] (2020), [ 141 ] (2020), inflammation markers, (C-reactive protein) [ 142 ] (2020), [ 143 ] (2020), [ 144 ] (2018).…”

Targeting CCN Proteins in Rheumatoid Arthritis and Osteoarthritis

“…Of the more than 100 different types of arthritis, rheumatoid arthritis (RA) and osteoarthritis (OA) are two of the most common [ 1 ]. The chronic inflammation and autoimmunity associated with RA disease principally targets the synovium, provoking the membrane lining to produce synovial fluid that causes synovitis and joint pain, and ultimately chronic and progressive joint erosion [ 2 ]. OA is a whole-joint disease involving the increased remodeling of the articular cartilage, subchondral bone and bone marrow compartments, as well as the synovium, during its onset and progression [ 3 ].…”