Parasites on parasites: hyper‐, epi‐, and autoparasitism among flowering plants

Abstract

All living organisms engage in parasitic relations, as either parasites or hosts, and these interactions play an essential role in biological evolution and the functioning of the biosphere (Combes, 2001). Even among photosynthetic organisms, parasitic interactions are often established by both algae and land plants (Oborník, 2019). The most widespread form of parasitism among plants is characterized by the ability to develop a specialized organ called the haustorium (Kuijt, 1969). This organ differentiates the species commonly referred to as parasitic flowering plants from other non-autotrophic plants that require fungal hosts or partners to fulfill their nutritional needs (Feild and Brodribb, 2005; Merckx et al., 2009). Usually developed soon after germination, the haustorium enables attachment AJB REVIEWS

On Overview Of Bioactive Compounds, Biological And Pharmacological Effects Of Mistletoe (Viscum Album L)

“…Parasitic angiosperms are over 4,700 species of 277 genera, of which 87 genera and at least 1,670 species belong to the mistletoe which is considered hemiparasites that grow on the host branches of various species of shrubs and trees looking like a highly developed shrub [1,2]. Living organisms are involved in parasitic relationships, either as parasites or as hosts, these interactions having an essential role in the proper functioning of the biosphere and the process of biological evolution [3,4]. Mistletoe (Viscum album L.) is an evergreen plant that depends on the host tree for some nutrients and water, while it produces carbohydrates in a process of photosynthesis, normally found growing on a variety of trees, both deciduous and coniferous trees [2].…”

Consuming and consumed: Biotic interactions of African mistletoes across different trophic levels

“…The majority of African species are facultatively epiparasitic generalists (Table S1), which is also true at the global level (Krasylenko et al, 2021;Wilson & Calvin, 2017). Obligate epiparasitism occurs in two African Viscum species-V. goetzei, parasitizing solely an Englerina host, and V. loranthicola, associated with a number of Loranthaceae host genera-and has also been suspected for Agelanthus dichrous being highly selective towards Loranthaceae hosts (Wilson & Calvin, 2017; see also Table S1).…”

“…Physiological ecology, evolutionary advantages, and ecosystem outcomes of epiparasitism in plants are poorly studied (reviewed by Krasylenko et al, 2021), not to mention the remarkable cases of tripartite associations such as the occurrence of Viscum verrucosum on Tapinanthus quequensis on Agelanthus natalitius growing upon Combretum apiculatum (Combretaceae) in South Africa (Nickrent, 2002). Limited evidence suggests that epiparasites tend to sustain lower water potentials and higher concentrations of mineral nutrients compared to parasitic and nonparasitic (primary) hosts, likely leading to selection on associated herbivores (Krasylenko et al, 2021).…”

“…Physiological ecology, evolutionary advantages, and ecosystem outcomes of epiparasitism in plants are poorly studied (reviewed by Krasylenko et al, 2021), not to mention the remarkable cases of tripartite associations such as the occurrence of Viscum verrucosum on Tapinanthus quequensis on Agelanthus natalitius growing upon Combretum apiculatum (Combretaceae) in South Africa (Nickrent, 2002). Limited evidence suggests that epiparasites tend to sustain lower water potentials and higher concentrations of mineral nutrients compared to parasitic and nonparasitic (primary) hosts, likely leading to selection on associated herbivores (Krasylenko et al, 2021). In addition, the tendency of epiparasites to have smaller fruits and seeds compared with their parasitic hosts, as reported for some Viscaceae and Loranthaceae species from North America and Africa (Calvin & Wilson, 2009), may affect the dispersal of epiparasites by selecting for frugivores with certain dietary preferences.…”

The Angiosperm Stem Hemiparasitic Genus Cassytha (Lauraceae) and Its Host Interactions: A Review

“…Parasitism is a widespread phenomenon and an important ecological interaction, with many organisms being engaged as either parasites or hosts ( Combes, 2001 ; Krasylenko et al, 2021 ). Plant parasitism includes directly parasitizing host plants and absorbing water and nutrition via haustorium and indirectly parasitizing other plants and acquiring nutrition via mycorrhizal fungi ( Nickrent and Musselman, 2004 ; Nickrent, 2014 ; Krasylenko et al, 2021 ). These parasitic flowering plants include about 4,500 species and have been divided into 12 independent evolutionary lineages ( Nickrent, 2020 ; Těšitel et al, 2021 ).…”