Partial and total C-6 oxidation of gelling carrageenans. Modulation of the antiviral activity with the anionic character

Carrageenans as Broad-Spectrum Microbicides: Current Status and Challenges

“…They include herpes simplex virus type (HSV) 1, Epstein Barr virus (EBV), varicella-zoster virus (VZV), and human cytomegalovirus (HCMV). Fifteen different in vitro studies reported CG antiviral activities against different herpesviruses by using various cell lines such as Vero cells, PPK cells, Hela cells, human foreskin fibroblasts, mouse astrocytes, and MDBK cells [ 18 , 21 , 22 , 23 , 24 , 25 , 26 , 31 , 32 , 40 , 43 , 81 , 82 , 83 ] ( Table 6 ) . Quantitation of plaque-forming units and virus-induced cytopathic effects were used to determine their IC 50 values.…”

“…Their anti-herpesviruses IC 50 value range seems to overlap with their anti-HIV IC 50 value range, which was from 0.03 to 100 µg/mL ( Table 3 ). These data suggest that, similar to HIV, human herpesviruses (e.g., HSV-1, HSV-2, HCMV, and VZV) and animal herpesviruses (e.g., bovine herpesvirus type 1 [BoHV-1] and suid herpesvirus type 1 [SuHV-1]) are susceptible to CG inhibitory activities [ 18 , 21 , 22 , 23 , 24 , 25 , 26 , 31 , 32 , 40 , 81 , 82 , 83 ]. In particular, antiherpetic activity was directly correlated with the prevalence of alpha-D-galactose 2,6-disulfate residues in CGs [ 23 ].…”

“…Like HIV, virus adsorption also seems to be the main target for CG antiviral action since CGs did not affect internalization or early or late protein synthesis of herpesviruses [ 22 ]. Of note, anti-herpesvirus activity was increased by partial oxidation of κ-and ι-CGs, which indicates the utility of structurally modifying CGs to improve their antiviral actions against herpesviruses [ 25 ]. In line with the key role of sulfated groups in the execution of antiviral activity in other viruses [ 43 , 58 , 59 , 60 ], the correlation of CG antiviral activity and the degree of their sulfation was also applicable to herpesviruses.…”

“…The cell lines include MDCK cells, Vero cells, C6/36 HT mosquito cells, MDBK cells, BSR cells, MT-4 cells, PRK cells, HeLa cells, PLC/PRF/5, HepG2 cells, foreskin PH cells, mouse astrocytes, and BHK-21 cells. As shown in Table 1 , their CC 50 values range from 5 to 3000 µg/mL depending on the types of CGs and cell lines used [ 16 , 17 , 18 , 19 , 20 , 21 , 22 , 23 , 24 , 25 , 26 , 27 , 28 , 29 , 30 , 31 , 32 , 33 , 34 , 35 , 36 , 37 , 38 , 39 , 40 , 41 , 42 ]. Although more sulfated CGs such as λ-CG seems to be less toxic to cells than less sulfated CGs such as κ-and ι-CGs, it was difficult to draw any general relationship between the degree of sulfation and the cytotoxicity due to the presence of many outliers ( Table 1 ).…”

Pyrolysis products and thermal degradation mechanism of intrinsically flame-retardant carrageenan fiber

“…7,8 Due to the polyanionic characteristic of sulfate bases, carrageenans exhibit many biological activities, such as acting as an anticoagulant or anti-viral. [9][10][11][12][13][14] Also, sulfate bases can play a key role in ame retardancy when carrageenans are spun into threads. 15,16 Recently, most of textiles have been dealt with phosphorusbased ame retardant, halogen-based ame retardant, inorganic ame retardant, and nitrogen-containing ame retardant to reduce the ammability.…”