Per- and Polyfluoroalkyl Substances in North American School Uniforms

Abstract

We analyzed 72 children’s textile products marketed as stain-resistant from US and Canadian stores, particularly school uniforms, to assess if clothing represents a significant route of exposure to per- and polyfluoroalkyl substances (PFAS). Products were first screened for total fluorine (total F) using particle-induced γ-ray emission (PIGE) spectroscopy ( n = 72), followed by targeted analysis of 49 neutral and ionic PFAS ( n = 57). PFAS were detected in all products from both markets, with the most abundant compound being 6:2 fluorotelomer alcohol (6:2 FTOH). Total targeted PFAS concentrations for all products collected from both countries ranged from 0.250 to 153 000 ng/g with a median of 117 ng/g (0.0281–38 100 μg/m 2 , median: 24.0 μg/m 2 ). Total targeted PFAS levels in school uniforms were significantly higher than in other items such as bibs, hats, stroller covers, and swimsuits, but comparable to outdoor wear. Higher total targeted PFAS concentrations were found in school uniforms made of 100% cotton than synthetic blends. Perfluoroalkyl acids (PFAAs) precursors were abundant in school uniforms based on the results of hydrolysis and total oxidizable precursor assay. The estimated median potential children’s exposure to PFAS via dermal exposure through school uniforms was 1.03 ng/kg bw/day. Substance flow analysis estimated that ∼3 tonnes/year (ranging from 0.05 to 33 tonnes/year) of PFAS are used in US children’s uniforms, mostly of polymeric PFAS but with ∼0.1 tonne/year of mobile, nonpolymeric PFAS.

Neutral Per- and Polyfluoroalkyl Substances in In Situ Landfill Gas by Thermal Desorption–Gas Chromatography–Mass Spectrometry

“…Electrochemical fluorination (ECF)-based neutral PFAS were measured in ambient air near landfills in prior studies, − but were less than LOD in the LFG samples in the present study (Table ). A larger-scale study is required to better understand if the lack of ECF-based PFAS is due to landfill age/cell closure, given that the production of ECF-based neutral PFAS ceased in the early 2000s ,,, and/or due to the proximity of landfill to ECF industries. , Sources of FTOHs may include degradation of FT-based fluoropolymers, ,,− side-chain fluorinated polymers, ,,− or from residual FTOHs in consumer products, ,,− as well as in side-chain fluorinated polymers; , meanwhile, FTAcs are known precursors to FTOHs. , To the best of our knowledge, this is the first report of 12:2 FTO associated with landfills. The 12:2 FTO was previously measured in ambient air, not associated with landfills. − Five other target PFAS were detected at less than LOQ, but greater than LOD, including 6:2 FTI (Table ), which was previously measured in ambient air surrounding a landfill …”

“…Per- and polyfluoroalkyl substances (PFAS) are anthropogenic, ubiquitous chemicals of concern due to their persistence and potential human health effects. Some PFAS are found in consumer products, − often disposed in landfills at the end of their useful life. − Landfills are estimated to receive ∼50% of all municipal solid waste generated in the U.S…”

An Overview of Chemical Additives on (Micro)Plastic Fibers: Occurrence, Release, and Health Risks

“…There are also techniques that can quickly screen out samples containing F. Some studies conducted the total F analysis by combustion ion chromatography (CIC) before the extraction of PFAS (Rodgers et al 2022 ; Schellenberger et al 2022 ). Total F concentration can also be measured by the particle-induced gamma emission (PIGE) technique (Muensterman et al 2022 ; Xia et al 2022 ). The advantage of CIC or PIGE technique is that total F concentration can be quickly obtained.…”

PFAS Biotransformation Pathways: A Species Comparison Study

“…These chemicals possess unique structural attributes and function as surfactants that resist heat, oil, stains, grease, and water [ 2 , 3 ]. They are therefore used as fabric protectants, heat resistant non-stick cookware, adhesives, food packaging, electroplating, and aqueous fire-fighting foams [ 3 , 4 , 5 , 6 , 7 , 8 , 9 ]. As a result, PFAS are found all over the planet, do not break down in the environment, can move through soils and contaminate drinking water sources, and build up (bioaccumulate) in humans and wildlife.…”