Perceptions of adolescents' racial discrimination experiences, racial identity, and depressive symptoms among Black American fathers

Abstract

This study examined whether Black American fathers' perceptions of their adolescents' experiences of racial discrimination were related to fathers' depressive symptoms and if this association was moderated by fathers' racial identity beliefs and adolescent gender. Background: Racial discrimination is not only an individual-level but also a family-level stressor for Black families. Racial discrimination experienced by parents can spillover to influence their children; however, fewer studies have examined how adolescents' discrimination experiences relate to parents' psychological outcomes, especially among Black fathers. Method: Data were collected via online survey from 240 Black fathers (M age = 45.93 years, SD = 8.72) of adolescents (M age = 14.44 years, SD = 2.11) residing in the United States. Participants completed questions about their racial identity beliefs and depressive symptoms, as well as their adolescents' experiences with racial discrimination. Results: Regression analyses revealed that adolescentexperienced racial discrimination was directly associated with fathers' depressive symptoms. Fathers whose race was more central to them (racial centrality) had higher depressive symptoms when their adolescents had high racial discrimination experiences. Also, fathers' beliefs about how Black people are viewed by society (public regard) moderated the relation between adolescentexperienced racial discrimination and fathers' depressive symptoms differently based on adolescent gender. Adolescent gender also moderated the relation between fathers' personal feelings about being Black (private regard) and their depressive symptoms.

Ethnic–racial identity latent profiles protect against racial discrimination in Black American adults.

“…For instance, counselors could aid clients in understanding the significance and meaning of ERI and help promote positive connections toward ERI, which may benefit mental health outcomes such as lower distress and greater well-being. As found in previous studies, greater ERI centrality is related to reduced negative mental and physiological health outcomes (Hoggard et al, 2015; Jelsma et al, 2022; Seaton & Zeiders, 2021). The presented study findings, therefore, underscore potential clinical benefits related to clients’ developing an understanding of their ethnic identity and the meaning that cultural identity membership plays in Black American clients’ lives.…”

“…Similarly, ERI significantly moderated the relationship between racial discrimination and psychological distress such that having an Achievement profile was protective relative to a Moratorium profile. The finding that having an ERI profile for Achievement, compared to Moratorium and Diffusion, protects against the adverse influence of racial discrimination on depression and psychological distress aligns with prior findings that greater ERI centrality, greater ERI private regard, and lower ERI public regard are related to reduced negative effects for both mental and physical health outcomes (Hoggard et al, 2015; Jelsma et al, 2022; Seaton, 2009; Seaton & Zeiders, 2021), and that ERI Exploration and Commitment protects against the influence of racial discrimination on mental health (Hollingsworth & Polanco-Roman, 2022).…”

“…The comparatively lower slopes for the Achievement profile for both depression symptom severity and psychological distress provide evidence that this ERI status buffers negative mental health in the context of racial discrimination (Brondolo et al, 2009). Given prior research documenting that racial discrimination is a common experience in Black Americans’ lives (Kessler et al, 1999; Williams et al, 2012) and its deleterious influence on Black American mental health (e.g., Driscoll et al, 2015; Hoggard et al, 2015; Jelsma et al, 2022; Ong et al, 2009; Sellers et al, 2003, 2006; Torres et al, 2010; Utsey et al, 2008), the present study represents an important advancement in the research literature in finding that an ERI status corresponding to achievement—where individuals have explored the meaning of being a Black American and have a strong sense of attachment toward being a Black American—protects against racial discrimination. The results further suggest a potential risk factor when experiencing racial discrimination.…”

“…Summed ratings provide a total score ranging from 0 to 60, where higher scores indicate greater symptom severity. The CES-D has been used with samples of Black American adults (e.g., Barton et al, 2022; Cavalhieri & Wilcox, 2022; Jelsma et al, 2022; Torres et al, 2010). Cronbach’s α for the CES-D in the present study was .86, suggesting excellent internal consistency.…”

“…In particular, racial discrimination , the behavioral component of racism that denigrates individuals or groups on the basis of phenotypic characteristics or ethnic group affiliation (R. Clark et al, 1999; Seaton & Zeiders, 2021), adversely influences health above and beyond sociodemographic characteristics (Schulz et al, 2006); impacts mental health longitudinally through elevated physiological stress responses and chronic perceived stress (Clendinen & Kertes, 2022; Ong et al, 2009; Pascoe & Smart Richman, 2009; Seaton & Zeiders, 2021; Torres et al, 2010); negatively influences Black American mental health at individual, institutional, and cultural levels (Clendinen & Kertes, 2022; Driscoll et al, 2015; Harrell, 2000); and impacts mental health of Black American families intergenerationally (Galán et al, 2022; Jelsma et al, 2022; Osborne et al, 2021). Moreover, racial discrimination is a common experience among Black Americans, with studies estimating that 60%–71% of Black Americans experience some form of racial discrimination in their daily lives (Kessler et al, 1999; R.…”