“…Among these roads, asphalt concrete pavement, known for its advantages of low noise, high comfort, and easy construction, is the primary road surface material (Yang et al, 2022;Gong et al, 2023;Lv et al, 2023;Xie et al, 2023). Especially in the construction of expressways in China, the proportion of asphalt concrete pavement exceeds 90% (Cui et al, 2021;Li et al, 2022b;Osuolale et al, 2023). Typically, asphalt concrete is composed of asphalt, aggregates, and mineral fillers (Taherkhani and Vahabi Kamsari, 2020;Jia et al, 2022).…”