“…Nowadays, concrete has long been used in various engineering structures such as buildings, utility tunnels, nuclear power plants, and so on (Ahmed et al., 2021; Bai et al., 2022a; Bao et al., 2023; Castillo et al., 2021; Park et al., 2022; Shen et al.,2021; Sun, 2022; Sun et al., 2020; Sun and Xu, 2022; Voyiadjis et al., 2022; Wu et al., 2022; Xu et al., 2018). During the service periods of the engineering structures, fire risk is unavoidable (Aslani and Samali, 2015; Nuruzzaman et al., 2023; Sun et al., 2022a; 2023).…”