Positive Effect of Cognitive Training in Older Adults with Different APOE Genotypes and COVID-19 History: A 1-Year Follow-Up Cohort Study

Abstract

(1) Background: Older people suffer from cognitive decline; several risk factors contribute to greater cognitive decline. We used acquired (COVID-19 infection) and non-modifiable (presence of APOE rs429358 and rs7412 polymorphisms) factors to study the progression of subjective cognitive impairment while observing patients for one year. Cognitive training was used as a protective factor. (2) Methods: Two groups of subjects over the age of 65 participated in the study: group with subjective cognitive decline receiving cognitive training and individuals who did not complain of cognitive decline without receiving cognitive training (comparison group). On the first visit, the concentration of antibodies to COVID-19 and APOE genotype was measured. At the first and last point (1 year later) the Mini-Mental State Examination scale and the Hospital Anxiety and Depression Scale were performed. (3) Results: COVID-19 infection did not affect cognitive function. A significant role of cognitive training in improving cognitive functions was revealed. Older adults with APOE-ε4 genotype showed no positive effect of cognitive training. (4) Conclusions: Future research should focus on cognitive dysfunction after COVID-19 in long-term follow-up. Attention to the factors discussed in our article, but not limited to them, are useful for a personalized approach to maintaining the cognitive health of older adults.

Alteration of Blood Immune Biomarkers in MCI Patients with Different APOE Genotypes after Cognitive Training: A 1 Year Follow-Up Cohort Study

“…Multidisciplinary training includes lifestyle changes, as it has been shown that this type of training is the most effective [44]. We have previously demonstrated a positive effect of cognitive training on cognitive functioning in MCI patients [50], and it is expected that it may produce an effect on some physiological and biochemical indicators of cognitive decline. Interestingly, cognitive training affected only cognitive test scores but did not influence depression or anxiety scores.…”

“…Cognitive training is a rehabilitation program conducted in our hospital [57,58]. According to previous studies, such rehabilitation reduces the severity of cognitive manifestations and their progressive deterioration [50,57,58]. The goal of our neurocognitive rehabilitation strategy is to improve the quality of life of elderly citizens, increase the period of active longevity, restore cognitive deficits and prevent dementia.…”

“…That is important for medical workers for diag-nosing and determining therapeutic and rehabilitation goals, as well as for non-medical specialists working with the problem of reducing cognitive competence at the stage of late ontogenesis [48,49]. Previously, we showed a positive effect of cognitive training that depended on the APOE genotype in patients with MCI [50].…”

Post-COVID-19 Cognitive Decline and Apoe Polymorphism: Towards a Possible Link?

“…Similarly, Zhang et al evaluated 142 patients with COVID-19 and found that those with APOE E4 had elevated inflammatory factors [8]. In another study, Zorkina et al did not find any influence of the baseline serological status for COVID-19 and the APOE gene polymorphism on cognitive rehabilitation in a sample of individuals over 65 years old measured through changes in Mini-Mental State Examination (MMSE) scores [9]. This association is significant, as the same allele confers a higher risk of sporadic Alzheimer's disease (AD) [10].…”