Primate empathy: A flexible and multi-componential phenomenon

Abstract

Empathy, the capacity to share and understand others’ states, is crucial for facilitating enduring social relationships and managing ingroup and outgroup dynamics. Despite being at the center of much scrutiny and debate in human research, the evolutionary foundations of empathy remain relatively opaque. Moreover, inconsistencies remain regarding definitions and theoretical models, leading to discrepancies in how to systematically represent and address empathy and understand its evolutionary basis. As a complex, multi-dimensional phenomenon, certain components of empathy are likely to be evolutionarily ancient whereas others may be more derived. As our closest living relatives, nonhuman primates provide an opportunity to explore the evolutionary origins of empathy and its subcomponents. Due to the rich diversity of primate societies, we can comparatively study evidence of affective responding and empathic behaviour within the context of different social dynamics and organisation. Although studies have been conducted on individual primate species, especially the great apes, direct species comparisons are rare. Here we examine the literature investigating evidence for empathy among primates focussing on its underlying affective and cognitive components. In reviewing the literature, we also highlight species that need more coverage to enhance our overall understanding of how empathy has evolved within the primate order.

Tactical signalling by victims increases bystander consolation in bonobos

“…More generally, evidence of enhanced consolatory responding by bystanders following paedomorphic victim signal highlights the close interplay between strategic distress signalling and corresponding empathic responding in receivers, which challenges the assumption that empathic responding is spontaneously offered [49]. Rather, it supports the view that empathy is elicited by certain communicative cues by distressed victims which may be under conscious control.…”

“…As well contributing novel insights into the nature of emotional communication in primates, such findings of strategic victim signalling would also challenge the current assumption that consolation, and other expressions of empathy in animals, are bystander-initiated behaviours, rather than being elicited by the signaller themselves [49]. In fact, most comparative studies examining consolation in animals, including primates, specifically exclude victim-initiated bystander affiliation, because such affiliation is thought to be driven by the victim themselves rather than representing genuine empathic motivation by the bystander [35,49]. Addressing victim signalling and its potential role in shaping the affiliative responses of bystanders (consolation) and former opponents (reconciliation) therefore addresses a crucial ignored component of post-conflict interactions, and will inform on whether consolation in bonobos is truly 8 spontaneous or instead may be mediated by tactical emotion communication of the victims themselves.…”

“…As well contributing novel insights into the nature of emotional communication in primates, such findings of strategic victim signalling would also challenge the current assumption that consolation, and other expressions of empathy in animals, are bystander-initiated behaviours, rather than being elicited by the signaller themselves [49]. In fact, most comparative studies examining consolation in animals, including primates, specifically exclude victim-initiated bystander affiliation, because such affiliation is thought to be driven by the victim themselves rather than representing genuine empathic motivation by the bystander [35,49].…”

Flexible signalling strategies by victims mediate post-conflict interactions in bonobos

“…More generally, the association found between distress signalling and bystander consolation (widely considered a behavioural marker of empathy) indicates that a bystander's decision to console appears to be influenced by the victim's own signals prior to the approach; in other words, rather than consolation being an entirely spontaneous behaviour offered by the bystander (as the consolation literature suggests, e.g. [78,79]), it is more likely to involve both the victim's own expressions in response to the situation and bystander's perception of these signals and the event. Victims appear to communicate to receivers before the receivers themselves approach for consolation.…”

“Emotional Proximity” and “Spatial Proximity”: Higher Relationship Quality and Nearer Distance Both Strengthen Scratch Contagion in Tibetan Macaques

“…In the study of animal behavior, this interesting phenomenon of behavioral synchronization is known as a behavioral contagion. Behavioral contagion has been defined as a phenomenon in which the event that an individual engages in an unlearned behavior automatically triggers a similar behavior in others [ 5 ], which is generally reserved for motor mimicry of specific self-directed behaviors (SDBs) or social actions [ 6 ]. Behavioral contagion involving yawning, scratching, self-grooming, scent-marking and other behaviors have been observed in several primate species (e.g., chimpanzees ( Pan troglodytes ) [ 7 , 8 , 9 , 10 ], gelada baboons ( Theropithecus gelada ) [ 11 ] and bonobos ( P. paniscus ) [ 12 , 13 ]).…”