Proximity Density Assessment and Characterization of Water and Sanitation Facilities in the Informal Settlements of Kisumu City: Implications for Public Health Planning

Abstract

Access to water and sanitation remain a challenge in many developing countries, especially in pro-poor urban informal settlements where socioeconomic livelihoods are generally low. The aim of this study was to characterise the water and sanitation facilities in the informal settlements of Kisumu City and to evaluate their effect on community hygiene and health. The study focussed on the five urban informal settlements of Nyalenda A, Nyalenda B, Manyatta A, Manyatta B and Obunga, and the three Peri-urban informal settlements of Kogony, Usoma and Otonglo. Using descriptive techniques, the researcher surveyed 114 water sources and all sanitation facilities within 0-15 m and 15-30 m radii of the water sources. The findings revealed dominance of shallow wells and traditional pit latrines as the primary water sources and sanitation facilities, respectively. Out of the water sources studied, 87.7% (100) were shallow wells (mean depth 1.5 m), 9.6% (11) springs and 2.6% (3) boreholes. Most of these shallow wells (83%) were within the urban informal settlements where uses range from washing and cleaning, cooking, and even drinking (13.5%), despite the majority being unprotected. The analysis of the density of sanitation facilities near the water points showed that 32.3% existed within a 15 m radius of the nearest water sources, in violation of the recommended safe distance of 30 m. With an increased density of toilets near critical water sources and other sanitary practices, public health is highly compromised.

Socio-Economic Inequalities in Access to Drinking Water among Inhabitants of Informal Settlements in South Africa

“…Specifically, as in many previous studies [ 31 , 40 , 43 , 44 , 45 , 46 ], we found that wealth is an essential factor in access to a safe drinking water source in informal settlements. Although the SES in informal settlements is generally low [ 28 ], the use of a piped tap on the property is still disproportionately concentrated among households with higher SES (positive concentration index). To diminish these inequalities and ensure consistent and quality access to drinking water for all, investment in piped drinking water is needed [ 10 ].…”

“…However, these water resources might be polluted due to industrial and household waste, making them potentially unsafe for humans [ 8 , 23 ]. Pollution could be the result of broken septic tanks, irrigation, and run-off water containing agrochemicals, which could spread infectious diseases, including cholera and typhoid [ 28 ]. Thus, the lack of access to piped tap water might result in poor health outcomes and the spread of diseases due to the use of contaminated water sources [ 9 ].…”

“…Furthermore, as suggested in previous studies [ 8 , 19 ], isolated interventions solely focused on improving access to drinking water sources have questionable success. This is because of the close association between sanitation management and water quality [ 28 ]. From a public health point of view, it is crucial to couple the water-improvement interventions with interventions for improving sanitation infrastructure.…”

“…The availability of new disaggregated data on the access to drinking water among other key population groups would enable the analysis of access to safe drinking water by marginalized groups like slum populations [ 20 ]. In this study, we focused on the access to drinking water among those living in informal settlements, which has barely been the focus of previous studies [ 28 ]. We investigated the case of informal settlements in South Africa specifically, which has not been adequately done before.…”

Contamination of groundwater with sulfamethoxazole and antibiotic resistant Escherichia coli in informal settlements in Kisumu, Kenya

“…This is known accelerate contamination of groundwater and in effect spread of antibiotic resistance due to the rise in the number of on-site sanitation facilities like pit latrines [31]. There is likely interaction of the aquifer and sanitation facilities due to the limited construction depth of both pit latrines and shallow wells in the study site [29,39]. The Kisumu drainage network and the wastewater treatment site are close to the sites where antibiotic resistant E. coli were isolated, indicating a possible contamination in the sub-surface.…”