Quality Evaluation and Health Implications of Natural Spring Water from a District in Outer Himalayas: A Case Study for Murree, Pakistan

Abstract

Murree is the most visited tourist destination in Pakistan. The rural population of Murree uses natural spring water for drinking, household use, and irrigation. This study assessed the elemental concentration of water from 20 natural springs in Murree using ICP-OES. The mean concentration of these elements varied in the following order: Ca > Na > Mg > Si > K > Se > Sr > Ba > Al > B > Li > Zn > Fe > Ni > Cr. Principal component analysis was used to assess the correlation between the sites. Pearson’s correlation coefficient was calculated to find the correlation among the metals and altitude. To assess the metal pollution levels in Murree’s natural spring water, metal index was calculated for Al, Ba, Cr, Ni, Fe, Zn, Sr, Mg, and Ca, respectively. The metal index revealed that the pollution levels in the natural spring water of Murree are low. The health hazards posed by exposure to these metals were quantified for ingestion and dermal contact. The spatial distribution was assessed using inverse distance weighting interpolation. The average daily dose was calculated for Al, B, Ba, Ca, Cr, Fe, K, Mg, Na, Sr, Zn, Li, and Ni exposure for both adults and children. The average daily dose results showed that ingestion is the primary exposure pathway, with children having a higher risk. Ca has the highest ADD via ingestion and dermal contact, while Cr has the lowest for both adults and children. The study quantified potential noncarcinogenic health hazards from metal exposure in Murree spring water by calculating the hazard quotient and hazard index for two pathways. Barium had the highest HQing, HQder, and HI values, while Fe had the lowest. The study assessed the quality of water for irrigation in Murree's natural spring water using the sodium absorption ratio, magnesium absorption ratio, percentage sodium, Kelly's ratio, and salinity hazard. The study concluded that the spring water of Murree has low concentrations of heavy metals; their concentration is dependent upon the geology of the study area and is good for drinking and irrigation.