Rape, War, and the Socialization of Masculinity

Abstract

Rape is endemic during war, suggesting that there may be important conceptual links between the two. A theoretical model is presented positing that rape and war are correlated because traditional (hegemonic) masculinity underlies, and is a cause of, both. An analysis of the literatures on masculinity, rape perpetration, and military socialization is conducted to support this model. Particular elements of traditional masculinity that are implicated include status and achievement; toughness and aggression; restricted emotionality; and power, dominance, and control. It is argued that society's need for effective soldiers is the root cause of traditional masculine socialization and that this socialization ensures that rape will be prevalent. Possible strategies to minimize rape while preserving traditional masculine socialization are discussed. However, it is concluded that as long as most nations rely on warfare to respond to geopolitical conflict, rape prevention efforts will necessarily have only limited success.

Deconstructing hegemonic masculinity: The roles of antifemininity, subordination to women, and sexual dominance in men’s perpetration of sexual aggression.

“…Pertinently, men’s tendency to experience stress when in subordinate positions to women was found to be significantly associated with sexual coercion. In a similar deconstruction of six dimensions of male role norms (i.e., feminine avoidance, status and achievement, toughness and aggression, restricted emotionality, nonrelational sexuality, and dominance), Zurbriggen (2010) found each of these six dimensions to be independently, as well as collectively, correlated with sexual aggression perpetration. Given this research, it is clear that the relationship between male role norm adherence, masculine gender role stress, and sexual aggression perpetration is highly complex and encompasses several different possible paths.…”

“…Antifemininity, or men’s avoidance of femininity, refers to men’s internalized desire to avoid being perceived as feminine by abstaining from actions, thoughts, and feelings that are commonly associated with femininity (Zurbriggen, 2010). Antifemininity also involves a fear of traditional feminine values and behaviors (e.g., appearing weak or docile), and therefore encourages restricting one’s emotions and portraying a façade of toughness (O’Neil, 1981).…”

“…Antifemininity is therefore internalized as the basis for achieving dominance in interpersonal interactions (O’Neil, 2008; Truman et al, 1996). As a result, adhering to the antifemininity norm is also associated with the devaluation of women because femininity as a whole is seen as inferior and less desirable than masculinity (Murnen et al, 2002; O’Neil, 1981; Zurbriggen, 2010). The internalization of antifemininity has been associated with rape supportive attitudes and men’s perpetration of sexual aggression against women (Luddy & Thompson, 1997; Thompson & Cracco, 2008; Truman et al, 1996).…”

“…Obtaining and maintaining status and power in society and in interpersonal interactions involves the objectification or dehumanization of others, particularly women, and a need to control others and hold power. This involves a distrust of others and a willingness to manipulate them (Levant et al, 2010; Malamuth et al, 1995; Zurbriggen, 2010). Further, men who have internalized and adhere to this particular masculine norm are more likely to take extreme measures (e.g., violence and aggression) in order to maintain their dominance in society.…”

“…Given these data, researchers have worked to understand the risk factors associated with men’s perpetration of sexual aggression. To this end, much research has demonstrated that men who endorse and internalize several aspects of hegemonic masculinity are at greater risk for perpetrating sexual aggression toward women (for reviews, see Murnen, Wright, & Kaluzny, 2002; Zurbriggen, 2010). Specifically, traditional masculine norms are thought to function in a way that promotes men’s dominance and women’s subordination.…”