Reduction in Free Fatty Acid Concentration in Sludge Palm Oil Using Heterogeneous and Homogeneous Catalysis: Process Optimization, and Reusable Heterogeneous Catalysts

Abstract

Acid catalysts including Amberlyst 15 and sulfuric acid were used for heterogeneous and homogeneous catalyst reactions respectively, to reduce high free fatty acid (FFA) in sludge palm oil (SPO) using an esterification process. The goal of this research was to reduce high FFA content in SPO to less than 1 wt.% FFA so that it can be employed as a raw material in a transesterification process to produce biodiesel. Amberlyst 15 is an eco-friendly catalyst with many benefits, such as being reusable and generating non-toxic waste after reactions, compared to homogeneous catalysts, although the reaction time of the homogeneous catalyst was faster than the heterogeneous catalytic reaction. Therefore, esterification reactions with a heterogeneous and homogeneous catalytic reaction were carried out to examine conversion of FFA. The heterogeneous catalytic reaction decreased the FFA content from 89.16 wt.% to 1.26 wt.% under the recommended conditions of 44.7 wt.% methanol, 38.6 wt.% Amberlyst 15 catalyst loading, and 360 min reaction time. For homogeneous catalytic reaction, the FFA content of 1.03 wt.% was achieved under the recommended conditions of 58.4 wt.% methanol, 16.8 wt.% sulfuric acid, and 79.7 min reaction time. Furthermore, the results of the reusability research demonstrate that the heterogeneous catalyst may be reused for at least nine cycles. This research showed the promising potential of using SPO non-edible oil for biodiesel production by employing an eco-friendly heterogeneous catalyst for cost-effective environmental remediation.

Heterogeneous Calcium Oxide Catalytic Filaments for Three-Dimensional Printing: Preparation, Characterization, and Use in Methyl Ester Production

“…Their surface was analyzed using the static volumetric N 2 absorption method at a constant temperature of −196.85 °C, with degassing temperatures at 70 °C. 6 2.5. Analysis of Thermal Characteristics.…”

“…SPO is a viscous and semisolid substance containing a high level of organic matter. Due to its low cost and significant organic FFA content, this waste material from the settling ponds presents a promising option as an energy source …”

“…Due to its low cost and significant organic FFA content, this waste material from the settling ponds presents a promising option as an energy source. 6 To achieve both high yields and high purity of FAME during the biodiesel production process, the catalyst plays a crucial role in accelerating the reaction. The most commonly used, commercially available, homogeneous catalysts for biodiesel production via transesterification are sodium hydroxide (NaOH) and potassium hydroxide (KOH), both of which are soluble in the reaction mixture.…”

Continuous double-step acid catalyzed esterification production of sludge palm oil using 3D-printed rotational hydrodynamic cavitation reactor

“…Furthermore, when palm oil plant residuals and wastewater are dumped directly into the soil around the industrial area without being treated, its quality deteriorates. Consequently, their acidic, viscous, and greasy properties may pollute groundwater and cause odors in nearby industrial areas [8] . POME was produced by sterilizing crude palm oil, double screw pressing, and separating separator sludge, with 1000 kg of fresh fruit bunch (FFB) producing almost 0.5–0.75 tonnes of POME [9] .…”

Efficient and Stable Rice Husk Bioderived Silica Supported Cu2S-FeS for One Pot Esterification and Transesterification of a Malaysian Palm Fatty Acid Distillate

“…Biodiesel, comprised of long-chain fatty acid methyl esters (FAME), has been drawing considerable interest in recent years as a promising option for diesel derived from petroleum [1][2][3]. Its use has the potential to counter the growing lack of energy fuel and additionally offers a more environmentally friendly and renewable solution to the pollution caused by the utilisation of its petroleum-based equivalent [4][5][6][7].…”