Sodium Intake as a Cardiovascular Risk Factor: A Narrative Review

Abstract

While sodium is essential for human homeostasis, current salt consumption far exceeds physiological needs. Strong evidence suggests a direct causal relationship between sodium intake and blood pressure (BP) and a modest reduction in salt consumption is associated with a meaningful reduction in BP in hypertensive as well as normotensive individuals. Moreover, while long-term randomized controlled trials are still lacking, it is reasonable to assume a direct relationship between sodium intake and cardiovascular outcomes. However, a consensus has yet to be reached on the effectiveness, safety and feasibility of sodium intake reduction on an individual level. Beyond indirect BP-mediated effects, detrimental consequences of high sodium intake are manifold and pathways involving vascular damage, oxidative stress, hormonal alterations, the immune system and the gut microbiome have been described. Globally, while individual response to salt intake is variable, sodium should be perceived as a cardiovascular risk factor when consumed in excess. Reduction of sodium intake on a population level thus presents a potential strategy to reduce the burden of cardiovascular disease worldwide. In this review, we provide an update on the consequences of salt intake on human health, focusing on BP and cardiovascular outcomes as well as underlying pathophysiological hypotheses.

Assessment of the Effects of Salt and Salicornia herbacea L. on Physiochemical, Nutritional, and Quality Parameters for Extending the Shelf-Life of Semi-Dried Mullets (Chelon haematocheilus)

“…With the salted semi-drying method, fish muscle and fat can take up salt and lose water [ 33 ]. However, salinity is one of the risk factors for developing cardiovascular diseases, including hypertension [ 34 ].…”

The Reduction of Salt in Different Cheese Categories: Recent Advances and Future Challenges

“…Up to now, although lack of knowledge still exists, several reports suggests that Na directly damages target organs via multiple intricate pathways, therefore further efforts should be done to reduce Na in cheeses as feasible strategy for maintaining the human health state ( 33 ). The selection of suitable starter cultures could be a strategic key to compensate salting modifications, either by ensuring safety requirements and contributing to improve the nutritional value and the sensory properties.…”

Sodium and Potassium Consumption in Jamaica: National Estimates and Associated Factors from the Jamaica Health and Lifestyle Survey 2016-2017

“…Excess sodium consumption is a major risk factor for hypertension and cardiovascular diseases (CVD) and has been estimated to cause between three to five million deaths globally each year (1)(2)(3).…”

“…Excess sodium consumption is a major risk factor for hypertension and cardiovascular diseases (CVD) and has been estimated to cause between three to five million deaths globally each year (1-3). While the human body needs small amounts of sodium to maintain homeostasis, excess sodium has been associated with several adverse health outcomes, including high blood pressure, heart disease, stroke, chronic kidney disease, stomach cancer and obesity (1).…”