Spatial heterogeneity in drinking water sources in the Greater Accra Metropolitan Area (GAMA), Ghana

Abstract

Universal access to safe drinking water is essential to population health and well-being, as recognized in the Sustainable Development Goals (SDG). To develop targeted policies which improve urban access to improved water and ensure equity, there is the need to understand the spatial heterogeneity in drinking water sources and the factors underlying these patterns. Using the Shannon Entropy Index and the Index of Concentration at the Extremes at the enumeration area level, we analyzed census data to examine the spatial heterogeneity in drinking water sources and neighborhood income in the Greater Accra Metropolitan Area (GAMA), the largest urban agglomeration in Ghana. GAMA has been a laboratory for studying urban growth, economic security, and other concomitant socio-environmental and demographic issues in the recent past. The current study adds to this literature by telling a different story about the spatial heterogeneity of GAMA’s water landscape at the enumeration area level. The findings of the study reveal considerable geographical heterogeneity and inequality in drinking water sources not evidenced in previous studies. We conclude that heterogeneity is neither good nor bad in GAMA judging by the dominance of both piped water sources and sachet water (machine-sealed 500-ml plastic bag of drinking water). The lessons from this study can be used to inform the planning of appropriate localized solutions targeted at providing piped water sources in neighborhoods lacking these services and to monitor progress in achieving universal access to improved drinking water as recognized in the SDG 6 and improving population health and well-being.

Spatial distribution and determinants of limited access to improved drinking water service among households in Ethiopia based on the 2019 Ethiopian Mini Demographic and Health Survey: spatial and multilevel analyses

“…With that being known, Ethiopia is still struggling to achieve and maintain a sustainable provision of improved and accessible drinking water service. The proportion of limited access to improved drinking water service in this study (16.1%) was in line with studies conducted in low-and middle-income countries (Gomez et al, 2019;Hasan and Alam, 2020) but less than a study conducted in Ghana (Tetteh et al, 2022). The possible explanation for the observed discrepancy might be due to the diverseness of countries regarding population growth and distribution, the socioeconomic status of the countries, and geographical variation (Adams, 2018;Falk et al, 2022).…”

Strangers in a strange land: Mapping household and neighbourhood associations with improved wellbeing outcomes in Accra, Ghana

“…A complementary household- and neighbourhood-based strategy would be useful in contending with Accra’s water challenges. The two dominant sources of drinking water are through the public piped network and through vended (purchased) water outlets ( Moulds et al, 2022 ; Tetteh et al, 2022 ). Affluent, planned communities such as Airport Residential Areas, Ridges, and Cantonments often have better access to the public water supply network than poorer communities, which influences access and pricing ( Mahama et al, 2014 ; Tetteh et al, 2022 ).…”

“…The two dominant sources of drinking water are through the public piped network and through vended (purchased) water outlets ( Moulds et al, 2022 ; Tetteh et al, 2022 ). Affluent, planned communities such as Airport Residential Areas, Ridges, and Cantonments often have better access to the public water supply network than poorer communities, which influences access and pricing ( Mahama et al, 2014 ; Tetteh et al, 2022 ). While most households have access to improved drinking water, the Ghana Water Company has not been able to meet growing demand and thus must ration water delivery at times ( Stoler, et al, 2013 ; Tetteh et al, 2022 ).…”

“…Affluent, planned communities such as Airport Residential Areas, Ridges, and Cantonments often have better access to the public water supply network than poorer communities, which influences access and pricing ( Mahama et al, 2014 ; Tetteh et al, 2022 ). While most households have access to improved drinking water, the Ghana Water Company has not been able to meet growing demand and thus must ration water delivery at times ( Stoler, et al, 2013 ; Tetteh et al, 2022 ). Further, rationing can be spatially inconsistent – some neighbourhoods receive water every day while in other areas delivery is sporadic or non-existent ( Dapaah & Harris, 2017 ).…”

“…Since the GLSS does not sample the unhoused nor school-, hospital-, or prison-based populations, these are not included in this analysis. These household and area consumption metrics have been used in analyses elsewhere ( Alli et al, 2023 ; Bixby et al, 2022 ; Clark et al, 2022 ; Tetteh et al, 2022 ). For this paper, we use these consumption estimates to determine the number of households that fall into three SES categories within each EA in Accra: households in the bottom 20 th percentile (poor), 21 st -79 th percentiles (middle class), or the upper 20 th percentile (affluent).…”