Taguchi grey relational optimization of sol–gel derived hydroxyapatite from a novel mix of two natural biowastes for biomedical applications

Abstract

The comparative study of natural hydroxyapatite (NHAp) from bovine (B) and catfish (C) bones using different fabrication parameters has been extensively researched through traditional investigation. However, the quantitative effect optimization of a novel mix proportion of hydroxyapatite from these bones, and fabrication parameters have not been examined. Hence, this study presents the effect of the powder mixture, compaction pressure, and sintering temperature (as production parameters) on the experimental mechanical properties of naturally derived HAp. The bovine bone and catfish bone biowastes were used in mixed proportions to produce hydroxyapatite via the sol–gel synthesis protocol. The powders were calcined separately at 900 °C to convert the deproteinized biowaste. Next, the powders were combined chemically (sol–gel) in the appropriate ratios (i.e. 45 g of B: 15 g of C (B75/C25), 30 g of B: 30 g of C (B50/C50), and 15 g of B; 45 g of C (B25/C75)). Taguchi design supported by grey relational analysis was employed with an L9 orthogonal array. The Minitab 16 software was employed to analyze the Taguchi design. The result revealed an inconsistency in the powder mixture as the optimum state for individual mechanical properties, but the grey relational analysis (GRA) showed better mechanical properties with a powder mix of B50/C50, 500 Pa compaction pressure, and 900 °C sintering temperature. The obtained result further showed that the novel mix of these powders is a good and promising material for high-strength biomedical applications, having a contribution of 97.79% on hardness and 94.39% on compressive strength of HAp. The obtained experimental grey relational grade of 0.7958 is within the 95% confidence interval, according to confirmation analysis (CA). The optimum powder parameter was examined using X-ray diffraction (XRD), and its structure, size, and elemental makeup were examined using scanning electron microscopy (SEM) and energy dispersive spectroscopy (EDS) analysis. The sample had a higher degree of crystallinity and mean crystallite size of 80.42% and 27.3 nm, respectively. The SEM images showed big, gritty grains that are not tightly packed.

Fabrication of Novel 3-D Nanocomposites of HAp–TiC–h-BN–ZrO2: Enhanced Mechanical Performances and In Vivo Toxicity Study for Biomedical Applications

“…Its chemical composition is comparable to that of human natural bone/teeth, which is widely used in dentistry and orthopedics. 14,15 HAp and its related ceramics have unique combination of the properties including outstanding biocompatibility, nontoxicity, osteoconductivity, and bioactivity. 16,17 These outstanding properties make it favorable applications for tumor-associated bone segmental defects, 18 bone repair/regeneration, 19,20 tissue engineering, 21,22 protein adsorption, gene/drug delivery, 23,24 and other biomedical fields.…”

“…48 But some of these natural precursors have their own disadvantages including their availability and complexities during fabrication and other challenges. 15 To enhance the mechanical as well as biological properties of pure HAp, some polymers like chitosan, 49 polyethylene, 50 agarose, 51 collagen, 52 polyurethane, 53 polyesters, 54,55 polyamide66, 50 cellulose, and its derivatives 56−58 have been introduced successfully. 59 Some other biomaterials on either binary or ternary systems were also substituted into pure HAp, and various biocomposite of HAp/SiO 2 /MgO/ZrO 2 /h-BN/ La 2 O 3 /TiO 2 /r-GO/Al 2 O 3 /TiC 60−66 with improved mechanical behavior without changing their biological properties were fabricated.…”

“…Its chemical composition is comparable to that of human natural bone/teeth, which is widely used in dentistry and orthopedics. , HAp and its related ceramics have unique combination of the properties including outstanding biocompatibility, nontoxicity, osteoconductivity, and bioactivity. , These outstanding properties make it favorable applications for tumor-associated bone segmental defects, bone repair/regeneration, , tissue engineering, , protein adsorption, gene/drug delivery, , and other biomedical fields. − Besides exceptional biomaterial properties, pure HAp has limited applications, and it is difficult to shape due to its poor mechanical properties, such as extreme brittleness, fracture toughness, low flexural strength, stiffness, low flexibility, and wear resistance, which are the most important fundamental parameters for any implant material. − The mechanical properties of pure HAp were increased up to some extent by reducing their particle sizes and morphologies (nanorods and nanotubes) with the help of advanced synthesis techniques. − However, this increment is not enough for bone implant applications, and it is still needed to be enhanced by substituting a suitable oxide/carbide and nitride phase. , Many researchers are engaged in the evolution of pure HAp from waste natural resources, such as animal bones, − fish bones, fish scale, , algae, eggshells, − seashells, , and chicken beaks . But some of these natural precursors have their own disadvantages including their availability and complexities during fabrication and other challenges . To enhance the mechanical as well as biological properties of pure HAp, some polymers like chitosan, polyethylene, agarose, collagen, polyurethane, polyesters, , polyamide66, cellulose, and its derivatives − have been introduced successfully .…”

Multi-response optimization of reinforcement parameters of aluminum alloy composites by Taguchi method and grey relational analysis

“…In Taguchi's method of Design of Experiments (DOE), only pairs of combination experiments are conducted, instead of all possible experiments, unlike full-factorial design. When limited data is available from the experimentation due to the reduced number of experiments, the primary strategy would be to use Grey Relational Analysis (GRA) [ 21 ]. Taguchi-based GRA was popularly used by many researchers; this technique reduces the experimentation efforts and optimizes two or more objective functions simultaneously [ [22] , [23] , [24] , [25] , [26] , [27] , [28] , [29] ].…”

Weibull analysis of ceramics and related materials: A review

“…Because of their versatility in fabrication, high compressive strength, variable porosity, and bioactive qualities in the body, ceramics are frequently employed as implant materials [ 67 ]. This type of biomaterial can be synthesized from bovine and catfish bones [ [68] , [69] , [70] , [71] , [72] ]. The boom in bovine and catfish farming in Nigeria has led to a substantial upsurge in the creation of bone biowastes.…”