The Accuracy of Algorithms Used by Artificial Intelligence in Cephalometric Points Detection: A Systematic Review

Abstract

The use of artificial intelligence in orthodontics is emerging as a tool for localizing cephalometric points in two-dimensional X-rays. AI systems are being evaluated for their accuracy and efficiency compared to conventional methods performed by professionals. The main objective of this study is to identify the artificial intelligence algorithms that yield the best results for cephalometric landmark localization, along with their learning system. A literature search was conducted across PubMed-MEDLINE, Cochrane, Scopus, IEEE Xplore, and Web of Science. Observational and experimental studies from 2013 to 2023 assessing the detection of at least 13 cephalometric landmarks in two-dimensional radiographs were included. Studies requiring advanced computer engineering knowledge or involving patients with anomalies, syndromes, or orthodontic appliances, were excluded. Risk of bias was assessed using Quality Assessment of Diagnostic Accuracy Studies (QUADAS-2) and Newcastle–Ottawa Scale (NOS) tools. Of 385 references, 13 studies met the inclusion criteria (1 diagnostic accuracy study and 12 retrospective cohorts). Six were high-risk, and seven were low-risk. Convolutional neural networks (CNN)-based AI algorithms showed point localization accuracy ranging from 64.3 to 97.3%, with a mean error of 1.04 mm ± 0.89 to 3.40 mm ± 1.57, within the clinical range of 2 mm. YOLOv3 demonstrated improvements over its earlier version. CNN have proven to be the most effective AI system for detecting cephalometric points in radiographic images. Although CNN-based algorithms generate results very quickly and reproducibly, they still do not achieve the accuracy of orthodontists.