The Evolving Microbiome from Pregnancy to Early Infancy: A Comprehensive Review

Abstract

Pregnancy induces a number of immunological, hormonal, and metabolic changes that are necessary for the mother to adapt her body to this new physiological situation. The microbiome of the mother, the placenta and the fetus influence the fetus growth and undoubtedly plays a major role in the adequate development of the newborn infant. Hence, the microbiome modulates the inflammatory mechanisms related to physiological and pathological processes that are involved in the perinatal progress through different mechanisms. The present review summarizes the actual knowledge related to physiological changes in the microbiota occurring in the mother, the fetus, and the child, both during neonatal period and beyond. In addition, we approach some specific pathological situations during the perinatal periods, as well as the influence of the type of delivery and feeding.

Recent Insights on the Maternal Microbiota: Impact on Pregnancy Outcomes

“…Such an acquired diabetogenic condition is functional and induces maternal physiological hyperglycemia, which, in turn, increases glucose availability for the growing fetus. Therefore, significant changes in the maternal gut microbiota occur during pregnancy (2,4,11). Although scholars have explored the maternal microbiota in the third trimester of pregnancy, data on the changes in maternal microbiota during early pregnancy are scarce (2,4,11,12).…”

“…The gut microbiota in the first trimester of pregnancy resembles the microbiota of healthy nonpregnant women (2,4,11). Women have unique gut microbiota that can be classified into different classes or enterotypes.…”

“…During the third trimester of pregnancy, butyrate-producing bacteria with anti-inflammatory activities decline, whereas bifidobacteria, proteobacteria, and lactic acid-producing bacteria increase (2,4,11,39). Additionally, the maternal gut microbiota grows less actively, reaching a stationary phase accompanied by reduced gut motility and increased intestinal permeability (2,11,39).…”

“…The growth of bacterial species that can synthesize glycogen is stimulated in the presence of increased concentrations of glucose (3). In fact, the transcriptomic pattern of the maternal gut microbiota shows microbiotic changes related to hyperglycemia, especially in the third trimester (4).…”

Nutrition, Microbiota and Noncommunicable Diseases

“…The other reviews have described the intestinal microbiota changes in specific conditions, early infancy, hepatic ischemia-reperfusion and regeneration in liver surgery, vaginal microbiota, and cardiovascular diseases. Mesa et al [20] reported the microbiome changes and how those modulate the inflammatory mechanisms related to physiological and pathological processes that are involved in the perinatal progress. Cornide-Petronio et al [21] summarized the role of starvation, supplemented nutrition diet, nutritional status, and alterations in microbiota on hepatic ischemia/reperfusion and regeneration.…”