The Geographic Distribution, Venom Components, Pathology and Treatments of Stonefish (Synanceia spp.) Venom

Abstract

Stonefish are regarded as one of the most venomous fish in the world. Research on stonefish venom has chiefly focused on the in vitro and in vivo neurological, cardiovascular, cytotoxic and nociceptive effects of the venom. The last literature review on stonefish venom was published over a decade ago, and much has changed in the field since. In this review, we have generated a global map of the current distribution of all stonefish (Synanceia) species, presented a table of clinical case reports and provided up-to-date information about the development of polyspecific stonefish antivenom. We have also presented an overview of recent advancements in the biomolecular composition of stonefish venom, including the analysis of transcriptomic and proteomic data from Synanceia horrida venom gland. Moreover, this review highlights the need for further research on the composition and properties of stonefish venom, which may reveal novel molecules for drug discovery, development or other novel physiological uses.

Fine Structure of the Defense System of Synanceia verrucosa from, the Red Sea Egypt

“…The Synanceia verrucosa in the Red Sea is common benthic sh but the sh is hard in vision between coral reef areas agree to (Gwee et al, 1994;Halstead et al, 1956;Huskey, 2017). The dorsal n spines in Synanceia verrucosa have 13-14 spines in contact directly with the backbone, slightly protrusion of terminal eyes, a massive compact head, pink color, and a single poisonous gland all these characteristics indicate Synanceia verrucosa According to (Eschmeyer, 1973;Grobecker, 1983;Gwee et al, 1994;Halstead et al, 1955Halstead et al, , 1956Huskey, 2017;Kiriake et al, 2013;Saggiomo et al, 2021b). The venom Apparatus in Synanceia verrucosa is in paired anterolateral grooves on the dorsal side, and consists of sharp spines, encased in an integumentary sheath and have paired anterolateral grooves containing glandular epithelium that comprises the venom-producing tissue this result agrees with (Bariche et al, 2019;Khalil et al, 2018;Ziegman and Alewood, 2015).…”

“…Other sh has a poisonous gland in spines in the pelvic n and different maximum sizes, but this is not accurate evidence (Bariche, 2012;Bilecenoğlu, 2012;Endean, 1961). when dissected the sh found only 14 spines in the dorsal, each of which covering by the epidermis integument containing an internal fusiform poisonous gland (Saggiomo et al, 2021a). The venom Apparatus consists of 13-14 dorsal spines containing the poisonous glands only, and free pectorals and pelvic ns.…”

“…A Toxin Synanceia verrucosa like some Synanceiidae family members is a holocrine, endogenous secretion that has a common wide distribution in all temperate regions (Gwee et al, 1994;Halstead et al, 1956). The stone sh in Egypt are distributed in many coral reef sites along the Red Sea coastal line (Bilecenoğlu, 2012;Huskey, 2017;Kauferstein et al, 2004;Saggiomo et al, 2021a;Vine, 1986). The stone sh in the Red Sea is four species Synanceia verrucosa, Synanceia horrida, and Synanceia trachynis, the difference between Synanceia verrucosa and Synanceia horrida is the number of dorsal n spins.…”

“…In the present study, the stone sh was recorded in the muddy mangrove habitat of The Sinai Peninsula. Some authors have reported that stone sh have 13-14 spines on the dorsal n and have double pair of venom glands in each spine (Endean, 1961;Saggiomo et al, 2021a). Other sh has a poisonous gland in spines in the pelvic n and different maximum sizes, but this is not accurate evidence (Bariche, 2012;Bilecenoğlu, 2012;Endean, 1961).…”

Marine natural products

“…has been published. 732 The discovery of halogenated NPs e.g. heptachloromethylbipyrrole, tetrabrominated methoxylated diphenyl ethers, PCBs and DDT metabolites, has been extended to large fish in the Seychelles pelagic ecosystem.…”