The Long Arm of the Law: Effects of Labeling on Employment

Abstract

This article offers a test of labeling theory by exploring whether contact with school and justice system authorities has long‐term, negative, and independent effects on an individual's labor market success. We use the National Longitudinal Survey of Youth (NLSY79), a large and nationally representative sample, to examine whether experiences ranging from school suspension to incarceration during ages 15–23 can predict occupational status, income, and employment during ages 29–37. Unlike previous studies, we control for an exhaustive list of variables: social background, human capital, prior deviant behavior, family status, and local context. Our findings generally support labelling theory. Severe forms of labeling like sentencing and incaraceration have the strongest negative effects, though among females suspension or expulsion from school also has consistently negative effects. We conclude with a discussion of how labeling might reduce employment chances, with a focus on gender differences.

Effects of Unemployment, Conviction and Incarceration on Employment: A Longitudinal Study on the Employment Prospects of Disadvantaged Youths

“…Although in this high-risk sample a criminal history was not found to affect the probability of finding work, in particular for men, it may still affect the probability of finding goodquality, well-paying work (Davies and Tanner 2003). As the data used for this study lacked information about the quality of work or occupational status, this possibility awaits future research.…”

“…Low-skilled men in general apply for jobs without a service or public function, such as jobs in construction, where these assumed negative characteristics matter less (Davies and Tanner 2003;Holzer et al 2003). Although a stereotypical distinction between typical male and female professions is thought to decline over the past decades, this is particularly true for higher qualified employment, while occupational segregation by gender still holds for lowskilled jobs (Blau, Brummund, and Liu 2013).…”

“…This indicates that women are more affected by a criminal label, possibly because women's criminal behaviour is even less accepted than that of their male counterparts (e.g. Davies and Tanner 2003;Heidensohn and Silvestri, 2012).…”

“…In addition, Sampson and Laub (1993) demonstrated that incarceration during adolescence has a negative effect on job stability through age 32. Moreover, studies that looked at both men and women showed that incarceration as a juvenile or young adult was associated with more job instability thereafter, for men as well as for women (Davies and Tanner 2003;Lanctôt, Cernkovich, and Giordano 2007).…”

“…Females are less involved in crime than males, but the women that do engage in criminal behaviour might be judged more harshly, because they do not only break the law, but also violate gender norms, thus engaging in 'double deviance' (Bartusch and Matsueda 1996;Davies and Tanner 2003;Heidensohn and Silvestri 2012;Malloch and McIvor 2011). In addition, low-skilled women usually work in service or retail, and for these jobs, certain personality traits such as being friendly and trustworthy are deemed more important, for example because of contact with customers and handling cash.…”