The Need to Have Enemies and Allies: A Developmental Approach

Understanding Enemy Images in Central and Eastern European Politics

“…When people perceive threats, they are more likely to engage with groups they consider their own. This is a regressive defense mechanism, since the need for group cohesion 'switches off' certain functions of the mind that are responsible for critical thinking and the sustaining of individual autonomy (Volkan, 1985). When a group is faced with a crisis and the breakdown of its institutionalized task-structure, unconscious expectations towards the group leader can arise.…”

“…Most argue that this is a natural process at the individual level (Jung et al, 2002;Murray and Meyers, 1999;Oppenheimer, 2006;Volkan, 1985). Therefore group-level processes should explain why the intensity of enmification is different in various groups and periods.…”

“…For example, Schmitt (2008) defines an enemy as an actor who poses an existential threat to a community considered an in-group, while Oppenheimer defines an enemy only as a 'specific form of a negative stereotype', (Oppenheimer, 2006: 269). Volkan (1985) describes the enemy as the antithesis of an ally. This always involves 'attributing to [the ally] all the qualities the culture considers good: honesty, integrity, cleanliness and loyalty' (Volkan, 1985: 224).…”

“…When a group is faced with a crisis and the breakdown of its institutionalized task-structure, unconscious expectations towards the group leader can arise. One of these is to expect the leader to fight the crisis (in the form of the enemy) that threatens the group (Volkan 1985).…”

“…Volkan (1985) suggests that when a child is not able to integrate all their feelings towards an object (such as negative feelings towards parents) s/he will project some 'unintegrated aspects of him[her]self and perceived others onto suitable targets [of externalization]' (Volkan, 1985: 234). These targets could be objects such as medals or images of enemies.…”