The relationship between ultraprocessed food consumption and obesity indicators in Iranian adults

Ultra-Processed Foods and Human Health: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis of Prospective Cohort Studies

“…Of the 25 included studies, 9 were conducted in the United States [ [16] , [17] , [18] , [19] , [20] , [21] , [22] , [23] , [24] ], 10 in Europe [ 2 , 5 , [7] , [8] , [9] , [10] , [25] , [26] , [27] , [28] ], and 6 in Asia [ [29] , [30] , [31] , [32] , [33] , [34] ]. The UPF intake was assessed using 3 different methods: validated long-form FFQs in 12 studies [ 5 , 8 , 9 , 16 , [18] , [19] , [20] , 22 , 23 , 25 , 29 , 34 ], 24-h dietary recall in 12 studies [ 2 , 10 , 11 , 17 , 21 , 24 , 26 , 27 , [30] , [31] , [32] , [33] ], and only 1 study (28) used a 4-d food diary. The amount of UPF was reported as grams per d in 4 studies [ 8 , 16 , 25 , 30 ], as a percentage of daily energy intake in 15 studies [ 2 , 5 , [17] , [18] , [19] , [20] , [21] , [22] , [23] , [24] ...…”

“…The UPF intake was assessed using 3 different methods: validated long-form FFQs in 12 studies [ 5 , 8 , 9 , 16 , [18] , [19] , [20] , 22 , 23 , 25 , 29 , 34 ], 24-h dietary recall in 12 studies [ 2 , 10 , 11 , 17 , 21 , 24 , 26 , 27 , [30] , [31] , [32] , [33] ], and only 1 study (28) used a 4-d food diary. The amount of UPF was reported as grams per d in 4 studies [ 8 , 16 , 25 , 30 ], as a percentage of daily energy intake in 15 studies [ 2 , 5 , [17] , [18] , [19] , [20] , [21] , [22] , [23] , [24] , 28 , 29 , 31 , 33 , 34 ], and as a proportion relative to total dietary weight in 6 studies [ 9 , 10 , 18 , 26 , 27 , 32 ]. In the low exposure group, amounts of UPF ranged from 0 or nonconsumers to 214.6 g/d or 38.5% Kcal/d; in the high exposure group, amounts ranged from 50 g/d or 20.4% Kcal/d to 686 g/d or 74.2% Kcal/d with very high standard deviations.…”

“…Thirteen articles [ 2 , 17 , [21] , [22] , [23] , [24] , [25] , [26] , [27] , [28] , [29] , [30] , [31] ] with 13 cohorts were included in the analysis of UPF consumption and obesity incidence. The mean follow-up time for the pooled studies was 6.9 y (range 5.0 to 12.0 y).…”

“…Sensitivity analyses were performed to account for differences in RR based on the methodology used to assess UPF consumption (validated long-form FFQ vs. 24-h dietary recall) and the amount consumed. Of the 13 included articles, 4 used a validated FFQ [ 22 , 23 , 25 , 29 ], 8 used the 24-h dietary recall [ 17 , 21 , 24 , [26] , [27] , [28] , 30 , 31 ], and only 1 study (2) used a 4-d food diary. The amount of UPF was reported as grams per d in 3 studies [ 25 , 27 , 30 ] and as a percentage of daily energy intake in 10 studies [ 2 , 17 , [21] , [22] , [23] , [24] , 26 , 28 , 29 , 31 ].…”

“…Of the 13 included articles, 4 used a validated FFQ [ 22 , 23 , 25 , 29 ], 8 used the 24-h dietary recall [ 17 , 21 , 24 , [26] , [27] , [28] , 30 , 31 ], and only 1 study (2) used a 4-d food diary. The amount of UPF was reported as grams per d in 3 studies [ 25 , 27 , 30 ] and as a percentage of daily energy intake in 10 studies [ 2 , 17 , [21] , [22] , [23] , [24] , 26 , 28 , 29 , 31 ]. The pooled RR of the incidence of obesity for the highest versus lowest category of UPF was 1.22 (95% CI: 1.10, 1.35) with moderate but nonsignificant heterogeneity (I 2 = 44%, P = 0.15) and 1.40 (95% CI: 1.18, 1.66) with strong and significant heterogeneity (I 2 = 87%, P < 0.0001) when we used the methodology used to assess UPF consumption (FFQ vs. 24-h dietary recall).…”