The spray contribution to net evaporation from the sea: A review of recent progress

Andreas, Edgar L.; Edson, James B.; Monahan, Edward C.; Rouault, Mathieu; Smith, Stuart D.

doi:10.1007/bf00712389

Cited by 241 publications

(221 citation statements)

References 97 publications

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“…Breaking impact forms spray and aerosols, while small bubbles may be dissolved into the water column, larger bubbles entrained by breaking rise back to the surface and collapse. This generates spray, which is transported into the atmosphere and ultimately evaporates leaving water vapour, important for the thermodynamics of the atmosphere, and salt crystals that affect the radiative balance of the atmosphere and form cloud condensation nuclei (Andreas et al 1995;de Leeuw et al 2011;Veron 2015).…”

Section: The Broader Contextmentioning

confidence: 99%

Air entrainment and bubble statistics in breaking waves

2016

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We investigate air entrainment and bubble statistics in three-dimensional breaking waves through novel direct numerical simulations of the two-phase air-water flow, resolving the length scales relevant for the bubble formation problem, the capillary length and the Hinze scale. The dissipation due to breaking is found to be in good agreement with previous experimental observations and inertial-scaling arguments. The air-entrainment properties and bubble-size statistics are investigated for various initial characteristic wave slopes. For radii larger than the Hinze scale, the bubble size distribution, can be described by N (r, t) = B(V 0 /2π)(ε(t − ∆τ )/W g)r −10/3 r −2/3 m during the active breaking stages, where ε(t − ∆τ ) is the time dependent turbulent dissipation rate, with ∆τ the collapse time of the initial air pocket entrained by the breaking wave, W a weighted vertical velocity of the bubble plume, r m the maximum bubble radius, g gravity, V 0 the initial volume of air entrained, r the bubble radius and B a dimensionless constant. The active breaking time-averaged bubble size distribution is described bȳ N (r) = B(1/2π)( l L c /W gρ)r −10/3 r −2/3 m , where l is the wave dissipation rate per unit length of breaking crest, ρ the water density and L c the length of breaking crest. Finally, the averaged total volume of entrained air,V , per breaking event can be simply related to l byV = B( l L c /W gρ), which leads to a relationship to a characteristic slope, S, of V ∝ S 5/2 . We propose a phenomenological turbulent bubble break-up model, based on earlier models and the balance between mechanical dissipation and work done against buoyancy forces. The model is consistent with the numerical results and existing experimental results.

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Section: The Broader Contextmentioning

confidence: 99%

Air entrainment and bubble statistics in breaking waves

2016

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“…Computations with Andreas's (1992) spray flux model suggest that droplets whose initial radii are around 100 μm carry most of the spray sensible heat, and droplets with initial radii around 50 μm carry most of the spray latent heat (Andreas 1992(Andreas , 1998Andreas et al, 1995). Andreas (2003) therefore assumed that these droplets are the bellwethers of the respective spray fluxes and consequently modeled the spray momentum flux(τ sp ), sensible heat flux(Q S,sp ), latent heat flux(Q L,sp ) as…”

Section: Bulk Turbulent Flux and Sea Spray Flux Algorithmmentioning

confidence: 99%

“…where ρ w is seawater density, C w the seawater specific heat, T eq,100 the equilibrium temperature of spray droplets with 100 μm initial radius (Andreas et al, 1995;Kepert et al, 1999), and r eq,50 the equilibrium radius of droplets with 50 μm initial radius. Wind functions V S and V L depend on u * and tune Eqs (4) and (5) to the HEXOS data (Andreas and DeCosmo, 2002;Andreas, 2003).…”

Section: Bulk Turbulent Flux and Sea Spray Flux Algorithmmentioning

confidence: 99%

Impacts of sea spray on the boundary layer structure of Typhoon Imbudo

Tang

Chen

et al. 2013

Acta Oceanol. Sin.

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High winds in a typhoon over the ocean can produce substantial amounts of spray in the lower part of the atmospheric boundary layer, which can modify the transfer of momentum, heat, and moisture across the air-sea interface. However, the consequent effects on the boundary layer structure and the evolution of the typhoon are largely unknown. The focus of this paper is on the role of sea spray on the storm intensity and the structure of the atmospheric boundary layer. The case study is Typhoon Imbudo in July 2003. The results show that sea spray tends to intensify storms by increasing the sea surface heat fluxes. Moreover, the effects of sea spray are mainly felt in boundary layer. Spray evaporation causes the atmospheric boundary layer to experience cooling and moistening. Sea spray can cause significant effects on the structure of boundary layer. The boundary-layer height over the eyewall area east to the center of Typhoon Imbudo was increased with a maximum up to about 550 m due to sea spray, which is closely related with the enhancements of the heat fluxes, upward motions, and horizontal winds in this region due to sea spray. Key words: sea spray, typhoon, boundary structure IntroductionTyphoon is one of the most destructive natural disasters affecting China. Each year coastal South China is impacted seriously by typhoons that form over the western Pacific and the South China Sea. Millions of people live along the coastline and are exposed to the threat from wind, rain, storm surges, and severe weather caused by western Pacific typhoons. During the last two decades, the theory of typhoon evolution has been investigated extensively. In particular, large efforts were focused on the effects of large-scale circulation, typhoon structure, and terrain, etc. on the evolution of the typhoon (see the review in Meng et al., 2002). By comparison, the role of air-sea interaction processes in western Pacific typhoons seems to have received less attention in the earlier studies.Indeed, typhoon, one of the most energetic weather events over the ocean, is a powerful engine that runs on the energy extracted from the ocean. The air-sea transfer of momentum and enthalpy has long been recognized as important elements for generating and maintaining hurricanes. Turbulent transfer processes over the ocean are commonly parameterized using Monin-Obukhov similarity theory. However, during high-wind, hurricane conditions, large amounts of sea spray are produced by bursting air bubbles in whitecaps and by tearing spume from the wave crests. Consequently, both turbulence and sea spray provide routes by which moisture, heat, and momentum cross the air-sea interface. Although the question as to whether or how sea spray affects the evolution of hurricanes has

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“…It has been pointed out (Bortkovskii 1973;Borisenkov 1974;Ling and Kao 1976;Lighthill 1999) that ocean spray produced via different physical mechanisms (Andreas et al 1995;Andreas and DeCosmo 1999;Kudryavtsev 2006) significantly affects these dynamics. The spray influences the intensity and structure of a hurricane both mechanically and thermodynamically.…”

Section: Introductionmentioning

confidence: 99%

Effect of Ocean Spray on Vertical Momentum Transport Under High-Wind Conditions

Rastigejev

Suslov

Lin

2011

Boundary-Layer Meteorol

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Two mathematical models are proposed detailing the influence of ocean spray on vertical momentum transport under high-wind conditions associated with a hurricane or severe storm. The first model is based on a turbulent kinetic energy (TKE) equation and accounts for the so-called lubrication effect due to the reduction of turbulence intensity. The second model is based on Monin-Obukhov similarity (MOS) and uses available experimental data. It is demonstrated that the flow acceleration is negligible for wind speeds below a certain critical value due to the fact that the spray volume concentration is low for such speeds. For wind speeds higher than the critical value, the spray concentration rapidly increases, which results in significant flow acceleration. Both models produce qualitatively similar results for all turbulent flow parameters considered. It was found that the MOS-based model tends to predict a noticeably stronger lubrication effect than the TKE-based model, especially for lower wind speeds. The results of model calculations are in very good agreement with available experimental data for the spray production values near the upper bound. It is also shown that neither the value of the turbulent Schmidt number in the TKE-based model nor the choice of a stability profile function affects the spray-laden flow dynamics significantly.

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The spray contribution to net evaporation from the sea: A review of recent progress

Cited by 241 publications

References 97 publications

Air entrainment and bubble statistics in breaking waves

Air entrainment and bubble statistics in breaking waves

Impacts of sea spray on the boundary layer structure of Typhoon Imbudo

Effect of Ocean Spray on Vertical Momentum Transport Under High-Wind Conditions

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