The Warburg Effect Reinterpreted 100 yr on: A First-Principles Stoichiometric Analysis and Interpretation from the Perspective of ATP Metabolism in Cancer Cells

Abstract

The Warburg Effect is a longstanding enigma in cancer biology. Despite the passage of 100 years since its discovery, and the accumulation of a vast body of research on the subject, no convincing biochemical explanation has been given for the original observations of aerobic glycolysis in cancer cell metabolism. Here we have worked out a first-principles quantitative analysis of the problem from the principles of stoichiometry and available electron balance. The results have been interpreted using Nath's unified theory of energy coupling and ATP synthesis, and the original data of Warburg and colleagues have been analyzed from this new perspective. Use of the biomass yield based on ATP consumed, ${Y}_{X/S}\ ATP$ has been shown to excellently model the original data on the Warburg Effect with very small standard deviation values, and without employing additional fitted or adjustable parameters. Based on the results of the quantitative analysis, a novel conservative mechanism of synthesis, utilization, and recycling of ATP and other key metabolites (for example, lactate) is proposed. The mechanism offers fresh insights into metabolic symbiosis and coupling within and/or among proliferating cells. The fundamental understanding gained using our approach should help in catalyzing the development of more efficient metabolism-targeting anticancer drugs.

Apoptosis, a Metabolic “Head-to-Head” between Tumor and T Cells: Implications for Immunotherapy

“…The metabolic dynamics in the TME are significantly influenced by the competition among its main components. The Warburg effect, a key feature of the TME [ 150 ], enhances tumor cell survival and proliferation by altering glucose utilization. Research, notably by Voss et al, has shed light on the connection between T-cell metabolism and apoptotic sensitivity in immune responses [ 85 ].…”