Think like a Virus: Toward Improving Nanovaccine Development against SARS-CoV-2

Abstract

There is no doubt that infectious diseases present global impact on the economy, society, health, mental state, and even political aspects, causing a long-lasting dent, and the situation will surely worsen if and when the viral spread becomes out of control, as seen during the still ongoing coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) pandemic. Despite the considerable achievements made in viral prevention and treatment, there are still significant challenges that can be overcome through careful understanding of the viral mechanism of action to establish common ground for innovating new preventative and treatment strategies. Viruses can be regarded as devil nanomachines, and one innovative approach to face and stop the spread of viral infections is the development of nanoparticles that can act similar to them as drug/vaccine carriers. Moreover, we can use the properties that different viruses have in designing nanoparticles that reassemble the virus conformational structures but that do not present the detrimental threats to human health that native viruses possess. This review discusses the current preventative strategies (i.e., vaccination) used in facing viral infections and the associated limitations, highlighting the importance of innovating new approaches to face viral infectious diseases and discussing the current nanoapplications in vaccine development and the challenges that still face the nanovaccine field.

Harnessing Nanovaccines for Effective Immunization─A Special Concern on COVID-19: Facts, Fidelity, and Future Prospective

“…Professional antigen-presenting cells (APCs) consist of dendritic cells (DCs), B-cells, and macrophages; these cells deliver antigens to help T cells. Conversely, nonprofessional antigen presentation cells (APCs), including vascular and thymic endothelial cells, serve this role as antigen presenters exclusively under particular conditions and for transient durations. , …”

“…A vaccine generally comprises four primary constituents, i.e., adjuvants, which are stimulatory agents that augment the immune response to the delivered immunogen (either autonomously or in conjunction with the immunogen); an antigen, which is a substance originating from the pathogen and capable of eliciting an immune response (e.g., lipids, mRNA); and a delivery system that employs nanocarriers to encapsulate or present the immunogen to antigen-presenting cells. − The research and production of intricate biopharmaceutical products entail adherence to many regulatory standards pertaining to quality, safety, and efficacy. These requirements span from the initial stages of development to the various manufacturing phases, culminating in storage and distribution. , …”

“…Conversely, nonprofessional antigen presentation cells (APCs), including vascular and thymic endothelial cells, serve this role as antigen presenters exclusively under particular conditions and for transient durations. 257,258 A vaccine generally comprises four primary constituents, i.e., adjuvants, which are stimulatory agents that augment the immune response to the delivered immunogen (either autonomously or in conjunction with the immunogen); an antigen, which is a substance originating from the pathogen and capable of eliciting an immune response (e.g., lipids, mRNA); and a delivery system that employs nanocarriers to encapsulate or present the immunogen to antigen-presenting cells. 257−260 The research and production of intricate biopharmaceutical products entail adherence to many regulatory standards pertaining to quality, safety, and efficacy.…”

Progress and prospects on vaccine development against monkeypox infection

“…Several investigations offered the advantage of utilizing LNPs as a delivery system for the mRNA vaccines since excellent progress was made in MPOX inhibition. This is because these nanoparticles are considered a constant delivery method that can protect mRNA integrity, preserve their cellular absorption, and improve the yield of their transfer and nucleic acid discharge in the host cells [ 176 ]. Additionally, issues that may be encountered when developing a nanovaccine for MPOX and need to be addressed are vaccine affordability, capability to scale up, and durability in various environments because many MPOX patients are in several counties that cannot afford strict storage and transportation requirements.…”

LSDV-Vectored SARS-CoV-2 S and N Vaccine Protects against Severe Clinical Disease in Hamsters

“…The present COVID-19 vaccines have been shown to provoke strong T-cell immunity, which is thought to have played a significant role in providing exceptional protection against hospitalization or fatality [ 22 ]. New and mixed vaccine regimens have the potential to further boost cellular and antibody-based responses and generally improve clinical outcomes and lower the burden of disease [ 16 , 23 ].…”