“…This shows that DNA has a great potential to deal with difficult mathematical problems ( Chen et al, 2023 ). DNA strand displacement (DSD) is an efficient technology for DNA computing that provides rich intelligent toolboxes and has been widely used to solve many computational problems, such as NP problem ( Lipton, 1995 ), information encryption ( Sun et al, 2023 ; Wang et al, 2022a ; Zou et al, 2022 ; Sun et al, 2023 ), nanomachines ( Junke et al, 2020 ; Zhang et al, 2023b ), intelligent drug delivery ( Wang et al, 2022b ), clinical diagnosis ( Fan et al, 2022 ; Boskovic et al, 2023 ; Márquez-Costa et al, 2023 ), and biosensors ( Dong et al, 2022 ; Xu et al, 2022 ; Sun et al, 2023 ). With the rapid development of DNA strand displacement technology, several molecular logic circuits have been designed ( Wang et al, 2020 ; Zhu et al, 2020 ; Litovco et al, 2021 ; Chen et al, 2022 ).…”