Trends in amphetamine and benzodiazepine use among drivers arrested for drug impaired driving in Norway 2000-2009

Bogstrand, Stig Tore; Middelkoop, Gerrit; Christophersen, Asbjørg S.

doi:10.5324/nje.v21i1.1427

Cited by 10 publications

(7 citation statements)

References 18 publications

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“…The frequency of drugged driving has steadily increased in countries such as Sweden, Finland, Norway, Switzerland, France, Scotland, and Australia (Drummer et al 2003, Mura et al 2006, Bernard et al 2009, Jones et al 2009, Officer 2009, Ojaniemi et al 2009, Senna et al 2010, Blencowe et al 2011, Bogstrand et al 2011). Even though increases in illicit drug use, particularly cocaine (Mura et al 2006, Senna et al 2010), have been noted, greater increases in prescription drugs have been seen (Drummer et al 2003, Bernard et al 2009, Officer 2009, Ojaniemi et al 2009, Blencowe et al 2011, Bogstrand et al 2011). Although increases in opioid analgesics and methadone have been observed, the largest increases have been seen in benzodiazepine use while driving (Drummer et al 2003, Bernard et al 2009, Officer 2009, Ojaniemi et al 2009, Blencowe et al 2011, Bogstrand et al 2011).…”

Section: Discussionmentioning

confidence: 99%

“…Even though increases in illicit drug use, particularly cocaine (Mura et al 2006, Senna et al 2010), have been noted, greater increases in prescription drugs have been seen (Drummer et al 2003, Bernard et al 2009, Officer 2009, Ojaniemi et al 2009, Blencowe et al 2011, Bogstrand et al 2011). Although increases in opioid analgesics and methadone have been observed, the largest increases have been seen in benzodiazepine use while driving (Drummer et al 2003, Bernard et al 2009, Officer 2009, Ojaniemi et al 2009, Blencowe et al 2011, Bogstrand et al 2011). …”

Section: Discussionmentioning

confidence: 99%

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Trends in drug use among drivers killed in U.S. traffic crashes, 1999–2010

Rudisill

Zhao

Abate

et al. 2014

Accident Analysis & Prevention

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Objective Driving under the influence of drugs is a global traffic safety and public health concern. This trend analysis examines the changes in general drug usage other than alcohol, broad categories, and typical prescription and illegal drugs among drivers fatally injured in motor vehicle crashes from 1999-2010 in the U.S. Methods Data from the Fatality Analysis Reporting System were analyzed from 1999-2010. Drug prevalence rates and prevalence ratios (PR) were determined comparing rates in 2009-2010 to 1999-2000 using a random effects model. Changes in general drug usage, broad categories, and representative prescription and illegal drugs including, methadone, oxycodone, hydrocodone, barbiturates, benzodiazepines, and cocaine, were explored. Results Comparing 2009-2010 to 1999-2000, prevalence of drug usage increased 49% (PR=1.49; 95% confidence interval [CI] 1.42, 1.55). The largest increases in broad drug categories were narcotics (PR=2.73; 95% CI 2.41, 3.08), depressants (PR=2.01; 95% CI 1.80, 2.25), and cannabinoids (PR=1.99; 95% CI 1.84, 2.16). The PR was 6.37 (95% CI 5.07, 8.02) for hydrocodone/oxycodone, 4.29 (95% CI 2.88, 6.37) for methadone, and 2.27 (95% CI 2.00, 2.58) for benzodiazepines. Barbiturates declined in rate over the 12-year period (PR=0.53; 95% CI 0.37, 0.75). Cocaine use increased until 2005 then progressively declined, though the rate remained relatively unchanged (PR=0.94; 95% CI 0.84, 1.06). Conclusions While more drivers are being tested and found drug-positive, there is evidence that a shift from illegal to prescription drugs may be occurring among fatally injured drivers in the U.S. Driving under the influence of prescription drugs is a growing traffic concern.

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Section: Discussionmentioning

confidence: 99%

Section: Discussionmentioning

confidence: 99%

Trends in drug use among drivers killed in U.S. traffic crashes, 1999–2010

Rudisill

Zhao

Abate

et al. 2014

Accident Analysis & Prevention

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“…It is well known that large quantities of clonazepam tablets have been imported illegally into Norway and sold to drug users on the street. It is one of the medicinal drugs seized most frequently by police and customs and has very often been detected in samples from arrested drug-impaired drivers (Bogstrand et al 2011). It is likely that many of the clonazepam-using drivers in our study had obtained the drug from the illicit drug market (Bogstrand et al 2011); they were also among those with low blood drug concentrations.…”

Section: Discussionmentioning

confidence: 91%

“…Results from many scientific studies were used as the basis for determining legislative concentration limits (Vindenes et al 2012;2015). Compounds with assigned legislative limits represent those that are most frequently found among drug-impaired drivers (Christophersen and Mørland 2008;Bogstrand et al 2011) or those seized by police and customs agents (Vindenes et al 2012), as well as certain hallucinogenic drugs.…”

Section: Introductionmentioning

confidence: 99%

The implementation of per-se limits for driving under the influence of benzodiazepines and related drugs: No increased risk for arrest during therapeutic use in Norway

Christophersen

Karinen

Mørland

et al. 2020

Traffic Injury Prevention

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Objective: To investigate whether the use of recommended therapeutic doses of medicinal drugs has led to suspicion of driving under the influence of drugs (DUID) after implementation of legislative limits for illicit and medicinal drugs in 2012. Methods: Data from suspected drug-impaired drivers apprehended by the police from 2013 to 2015 were selected from the Norwegian Forensic Toxicology Database. The blood samples had been analyzed for benzodiazepines (BZDs), z-hypnotics, opioids, stimulants, certain hallucinogens, and alcohol. Drivers who tested positive for one BZD or a z-hypnotic only, were included in the study. Drug concentrations measured in their blood samples were compared to the maximal obtainable steady state concentrations if the drug had been used in accordance with the recommendations set by the Norwegian Directorate of Health. Results: BZDs or z-hypnotics were found in 10 248 samples, representing 59.6% of the total number of drivers arrested for suspected DUID (n ¼ 17 201). Only one BZD or z-hypnotic with a blood drug concentration above the legislative limit was detected in 390 (2.3%) of the total number of samples. Clonazepam was the most frequently detected BZD (n ¼ 4656), while as a single drug above the legislative limit, it was detected in only 3.6% (n ¼ 168) of the clonazepam-positive blood samples. For drivers testing positive for only one z-hypnotic, drug concentrations above the legislative limit were found in 27% (n ¼ 55) of the blood samples that tested positive for zolpidem and 12.4% (n ¼ 53) of the samples that tested positive for zopiclone. In total, 155 subjects out of 10 248 testing positive for BZDs or z-hypnotics displayed concentrations above the legislative limit but within the concentration ranges that are expected when taking recommended therapeutic drug doses, and 77 below the legislativel limit. Conclusions: The results show that the implementation of legislative limits for BZDs and z-hypnotics may have contributed to DUID suspicion for a small group of patients using therapeutic drug doses; only 1.3% of the suspected DUID offenders had concentrations of only one of those drugs in-line with recommended therapeutic dosing.

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“…As a road safety issue, driving under the influence of drugs has been given considerable attention in Norway [25][26][27][28][29], but drugged driving among patients enrolled in OMT has not been investigated sufficiently. Against this background, our study examines the relationship between DUI convictions and opioid maintenance treatment in a complete national OMT cohort over a 9-year period.…”

Section: Introductionmentioning

confidence: 99%