Variability between human experts and artificial intelligence in identification of anatomical structures by ultrasound in regional anaesthesia: a framework for evaluation of assistive artificial intelligence

Artificial intelligence for ultrasound scanning in regional anaesthesia: a scoping review of the evidence from multiple disciplines

“…Early approaches, most published before 2016–17, typically involved steps of feature extraction from the ultrasound image, followed by classification of these features, for both PNB 17 , 18 , 19 , 20 , 21 , 22 , 23 , 24 , 25 , 26 , 27 , 28 and CNB. 29 , 30 , 31 , 32 , 33 , 34 , 35 , 36 , 37 Around this point, there has been an increase in published data where the dominant technique was deep learning for both PNB 9 , 11 , 12 , 38 , 39 , 40 , 41 , 42 , 43 , 44 , 45 , 46 , 47 , 48 , 49 , 50 , 51 , 52 , 53 , 54 , 55 , 56 , 57 , 58 , 59 , 60 , 61 , 62 , 63 , 64 , 65 , 66 , 67 , 68 , 69 , 70 , 71 , 72 , 73 and CNB, 7 , 74 , 75 , …”

“…For some sources, it is not clear how the ground truth for training data was obtained. 9 , 11 , 12 , 28 , 29 , 39 , 40 , 41 , 42 , 43 , 45 , 47 , 50 , 55 , 57 , 59 , 60 , 68 , 70 , 72 , 73 , 74 , 75 , 76 , 78 , 81 , 82 , 83 , 84 , 85 , 86 , 87 , 88 , 89 , 90 , 91 , 93 …”

“…The most common output for models processing PNB ultrasound images was segmentation (the outline/colour overlay of features in the image). 9 , 11 , 12 , 19 , 20 , 22 , 23 , 25 , 27 , 36 , 38 , 39 , 40 , 41 , 42 , 43 , 45 , 46 , 47 , 48 , 49 , 50 , 51 , 52 , 53 , 54 , 55 , 57 , 58 , 59 , 60 , 63 , 64 , 65 , 66 , 67 , 68 , 69 , 71 , 72 , 78 , 79 Less common outputs included the use of bounding boxes to identify the location of the structure, 8 , 17 , 18 , 26 , 61 attempting to locate the centre of a nerve and placing expanding circular rings from the centre, 21 or placing name tags over structures in question. 9 , 43 , 45 , 47 , 50 …”

“…the outline of a blood vessel) were intersection over union (IoU; Jaccard similarity coefficient) and the Dice similarity coefficient. 8 , 17 , 18 , 19 , 20 , 23 , 25 , 27 , 28 , 38 , 42 , 46 , 49 , 51 , 52 , 53 , 54 , 55 , 57 , 58 , 59 , 60 , 62 , 63 , 64 , 65 , 66 , 68 , 69 , 71 , 79 The Hausdorff metric/distance was used to compare the proximity of lines (e.g. a fascial plane).…”

Research priorities in regional anaesthesia: an international Delphi study

“… 40 , 41 , 42 In addition, whilst augmented and virtual reality technologies offer the chance to support, improve, and reform traditional education and training in regional anaesthesia, more evidence is required to establish the potential role of these emerging tools. 32 , 42 , 43 , 44 …”