Vascularization Approaches in Tissue Engineering: Recent Developments on Evaluation Tests and Modulation

Abstract

This review focuses on vascularization and strategies involved in its evaluation and modulation. Clinical issues associated with engineered tissues of an atomically relevant size that require a vascular network to supply their cells with nutrients and oxygen are analyzed in terms of vascular network formation within scaffolds, which can be produced from varying biomaterials, with the capability of connecting to the vasculature of the patient. Developing angiogenesis techniques and monitoring of angiogenesis development as well as how these methods can be further utilized to tailor vascularization within large tissue engineered constructs are also discussed. Finally, we offer a glimpse toward the future by providing an outlook for vascularization and associated emerging bioprinting concepts in tissue engineering applications.

Emerging scaffold- and cellular-based strategies for brain tissue regeneration and imaging

“…For the successful development of an engineered brain tissue, the selection of an appropriate structure that will mimic, as closely as possible, the native ECM is of utmost importance so that it will generate substantial neuron outgrowth and vascular network [54][55][56]. This can be achieved using a biopolymer scaffold, in order to control the delivery of cells, growth factors, or drugs [57].…”

“…Angiogenesis specific growth factors: The creation of a new vascular network is required for cellular migration within the brain cavity since blood vessels transport oxygen and nutrients. Vascularisation is commonly promoted using EGF or vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF) with the use of varying biomaterial scaffolds [55], given that VEGF only delivery to the brain has previously been associated with immature blood vessels [119]. Scaffoldbased delivery systems have been shown to be efficient in fostering vascularisation.…”

Biomaterial Scaffolds Made of Chemically Cross‐Linked Gelatin Microsphere Aggregates (C‐GMSs) Promote Vascularized Bone Regeneration

“…[ 13 ] Among them, three‐dimensional (3‐D) scaffolding materials with adjustable biophysical cues (e.g., porous architectures, [ 14 ] degradation, [ 15 ] surface topographies [ 16 ] ) can influence the behaviors (e.g., adhesion, spreading, proliferation, and differentiation) of loaded angiogenic cells and vascularization. [ 17 ] In addition to pre‐vascularization in vitro, it is more important to engineering a universal scaffolding platform with favorable 3‐D geometries and microenvironments that can effectively recruit endogenous angiogenic cells (e.g., endothelial cells, endothelial progenitor cells) in vivo and then achieve vascularization and angiogenesis in situ.…”

Decellularized fennel and dill leaves as possible 3D channel network in GelMA for the development of an in vitro adipose tissue model

“…Therefore, the appropriate design of the 3D scaffold-based vascularized model, in terms of distribution and size of the channel network, still remains an open question. Different strategies are proposed in the literature to promote the realization of a channel network in 3D scaffolds, that can mimic the in vivo tissue vascularization, regardless of the final application ( Lovett et al, 2009 ; Datta et al, 2017 ; Tomasina et al, 2019 ; Lopes et al, 2021 ). Among them, a classical approach for the vascularization in the 3D scaffolds considers the stimulation of the vasculature development within the construct by using growth factor delivery systems or a co-culture with endothelial cells.…”