Vitamin K in fish nutrition

Abstract

Vitamin K belongs to the lipid soluble vitamins, and occurs naturally as phylloquinone (vitamin K1) and menaquinone (vitamin K2). In addition, there is a synthetic provitamin, menadione (vitamin K3), primarily used as a vitamin K source in animal feed. Menadione is unstable during feed processing and storage and the dietary content may reach critically low levels. Recent publications also question the availability of menadione in feed for salmonids. Vitamin K plays vital roles in blood coagulation and bone mineralization in fish, but the suggested minimum requirement varies considerably depending on the vitamin K source used. Vitamin K deficiency is characterized by mortality, anaemia, increased blood clotting time and histopathological changes in liver and gills. However, one should assess both inherent and supplemented forms of vitamin K in feeds for exact determinations, as relevant novel feed ingredients of plant origin may be sufficient to meet the requirement for vitamin K. The current review gives an overview of the biochemical role of vitamin K, and discusses vitamin K requirement in fish in light of updated literature, with special emphasis on salmonids.

Skeletal anomalies in reared European fish larvae and juveniles. Part 2: main typologies, occurrences and causative factors

“…), such as bone metabolism and growth control (Krossøy et al . ). Several vitamin‐K dependent proteins are present in bone and cartilage: osteocalcin (Oc or bone Gla protein; BGP), Gla rich protein (GRP), matrix Gla protein and protein S, being the important players in bone health, extracellular matrix mineralization and skeletogenesis.…”

“…Vitamin K-dependent proteins (VKD) have been detected in many tissues and it has become clear that vitamin K plays an important role in many biological processes (see Hamre et al 2013 andRønnestad et al 2013), such as bone metabolism and growth control (Krossøy et al 2011). Several vitamin-K dependent proteins are present in bone and cartilage: osteocalcin (Oc or bone Gla protein; BGP), Gla rich protein (GRP), matrix Gla protein and protein S, being the important players in bone health, extracellular matrix mineralization and skeletogenesis.…”

A review of the nutrition and feeding management of farmed tilapia throughout the culture cycle

“…In a recent review, Krossøy et al (2011) discussed the role and mechanisms of vitamin K in fish nutrition and stated that, despite being essential for optimal growth and physiological processes, there is a general lack of requirement data for fish, including tilapia. There are two types of naturally occurring vitamin K, phylloquinone (vitamin K 1 ) and menaquinone (vitamin K 2 ), which are synthesized by plants and microbes, respectively, although the most commonly used in fish feeds is the synthetic menadione (vitamin K 3 ) (Krossøy et al 2011). However, there are indications vitamin K 3 is much more unstable than vitamin K 1 and K 2 , thus making quantitative recommended levels in fish nutrition more difficult, while in practical feeds, a substantial amount can be lost during prolonged storage (Marchetti et al 1999).…”

Vertebral deformities in farmed Atlantic salmon (Salmo salar L.) - etiology and pathology

“…Other dietary factors that have been suggested as risk factors for spinal deformities in Atlantic salmon are the vitamins A and K. High dietary vitamin A after sea water transfer leads to spinal deformities, but only at concentrations higher than those normally encountered in salmon feed (author’s own unpublished results). Vitamin K is responsible for the posttranslational modification and activation of calcium binding proteins such as BGP and MGP (Krossøy et al., 2011). Still, vitamin K deficiency appears not to be an issue in Atlantic salmon feed (Krossøy et al., 2009b).…”