Vulnerabilities Relevant for Commercial Sexual Exploitation of Children/Domestic Minor Sex Trafficking: A Systematic Review of Risk Factors

Abstract

The commercial sexual exploitation of children (CSEC) and domestic minor sex trafficking (DMST) occur across the United States, violating the rights and health of far too many children and youth. Adequate prevention efforts should seek to understand the factors that make minors vulnerable to sexual exploitation in order to properly design programs to prevent victimization. This review presents the identified risk factors collected via a systematic literature review. Following full-text review, 15 studies were selected for inclusion by meeting the following criteria: original quantitative or qualitative research studies published in English from January 2010 to September 2017 with titles or abstracts that indicated a focus on the risk factors, vulnerabilities, or statistics of CSEC/DMST and a domestic focus on CSEC/DMST (for U.S.-based journals) with findings that did not combine associations between minors and adults in the study. Relevant risk factors and vulnerabilities found in this review include child abuse and maltreatment, caregiver strain, running away or being thrown away, substance use, peer influence, witnessing family violence or criminality, poverty or material need, difficulty in school, conflict with parents, poor mental health or view of self, involvement in child protective services, involvement in juvenile detention or delinquency, early substance use, and prior rape or adolescent sexual victimization. Keywords domestic minor sex trafficking, commercial sexual exploitation of children, gender-based violence, risk factors, vulnerabilities, prevention Purpose of This Review This review seeks to clearly discuss risk factors for CSEC/ DMST in the United States as found through original quantitative or qualitative research. Thus, the purposes of this review are to (1) clearly define the background and scope relevant to the issue of CSEC/DMST and (2) present and discuss significant risk factors in the reviewed publications.

Sexual Exploitation as a Minor, Violence, and HIV/STI Risk among Women Trading Sex in St. Petersburg and Orenburg, Russia

“…These results coincide with other studies about trafficked individuals and minors trapped in brothels [9,42]. Studies in other countries have found that youth who trade sex are especially vulnerable to HIV and related risks, including violence, less access to assistance, and higher chances of others controlling their sex-trade involvement [7,43,44]. In a Baltic Sea Regional Study on Adolescents’ Sexuality [22], 20–36% of Russian adolescent girls aged 16–18 reported having experienced any kind of non-penetrative sexual offenses, and 6–13% reported having experienced sexual abuse in the form of sexual intercourse.…”

Risk Factors and Indicators for Commercial Sexual Exploitation/Domestic Minor Sex Trafficking of Adolescent Girls in the United States in the Context of School Nursing: An Integrative Review of the Literature

“…Childhood maltreatment trauma posed the strongest risk factor for CSEC, supported by the majority of studies (e.g., see Chohaney, 2016; Franchino-Olsen, 2019; Havlicek et al, 2016; O’Brien et al, 2017; Reid, 2014; Reid et al, 2015), thus corroborating findings of an earlier systematic review by Choi (2015) and a meta-analysis by De Vries and Goggin (2018). School nurses, as trusted health professionals in the school setting, are uniquely positioned to identify the signs and symptoms of child maltreatment trauma, as child victims of CSA or other forms of abuse are likely to see their school nurse for related physical and psychological health complaints.…”

Frameworks and Theories Relevant for Organizing Commercial Sexual Exploitation of Children/Domestic Minor Sex Trafficking Risk Factors: A Systematic Review of Proposed Frameworks to Conceptualize Vulnerabilities

“…As summarized in Table 2, there are numerous risk factors noted in peer-reviewed studies that increase a minor’s vulnerability to exploitation. As discussed a previous review (Franchino-Olsen, 2019), some key points regarding these risk factors include that, according to published research, many exploited minors have a prior history of child abuse, neglect, and/or maltreatment, which potentially heightens their vulnerability to CSEC/DMST (Cobbina & Oselin, 2011; Cole & Sprang, 2015; Fedina, Williamson, & Perdue, 2016; Havlicek, Huston, Boughton, & Zhang, 2016; Kaestle, 2012; Landers, McGrath, Johnson, Armstrong, & Dollard, 2017; Reid, 2011; Reid, Baglivio, Piquero, Greenwald, & Epps, 2017; Roe-Sepowitz, 2012). Childhood sexual abuse is frequently singled out a particularly salient risk factor among the categories of abuse as it can damage a child’s coping skills, damage their trust of and relationship with caregivers, and possibly motivate criminal, risky, or harm-seeking behaviors during adolescence (Chohaney, 2016; Kaestle, 2012; Martin, Hearst, & Widome, 2010; O’Brien, White, & Rizo, 2017; Reid & Piquero, 2014).…”

“…Additionally, a negative home environment brought about by factors such as compromised parenting, caregiver strain, or witnessing family violence is associated with exploitation, as is the influence of their social network via peer or family member involvement in trading sex (Chohaney, 2016; Cobbina & Oselin, 2011; Cole & Sprang, 2015; Fedina et al, 2016; Landers et al, 2017; Reid, 2011; Reid et al, 2017; Reid & Piquero, 2014, 2016). These commonly cited risk factors, along with others, and their nuances are discussed further in Franchino-Olsen (2019).…”

“…Following full-text review and hand searching, 15 studies were chosen to be included in the review of utilized frameworks to discuss previously reviewed risk factors (Figure 1). Some papers were included in the review of frameworks (Table 1) that were excluded for the review of risk factors (Table 2, discussed further in Franchino-Olsen [2019]) related to victimization as a minor. Typically, this was due to their focus on adult prostitution or their failure to distinguish results along the lines of minor or adult selling of sex.…”