Work Time Matters for Mental Health: A Gender Analysis of Paid and Unpaid Labor in the United States

Abstract

Based on Midlife in the United States (MIDUS) survey data for 2013–14, this paper examines the association between work time (inclusive of both paid and unpaid work time) and the mental health outcomes of men and women in the United States, controlling for economic and social buffers, education, and demographic factors. In the United States, even though women constitute close to half of the paid labor force, they still perform the lion’s share of unpaid work. The findings indicate that total work time is positively related with emotional distress for women, while there is no statistically significant relationship for men. For women, the relationship between work time and mental health is primarily driven by unpaid work rather than paid work. Evaluating the relationship between mental health and both productive and reproductive work is critical to develop effective public policies toward gender equity and social well-being. JEL classification: I14, J16, J01

Gender differences in the association between unpaid labour and mental health in employed adults: a systematic review

“…Of the 19 studies, 14 examined associations for both men and women, 13,[16][17][18][22][23][24][35][36][37][38][39][40][41] and five examined women only. 19,21,[42][43][44] 17 studies were cross-sectional, with only two using a longitudinal study design to examine the association of interest.…”

“…19,21,[42][43][44] 17 studies were cross-sectional, with only two using a longitudinal study design to examine the association of interest. 43,44 Five studies were for Sweden, 17,18,35,38,42 four for the USA, 16,24,36,39 two for Canada, 13,44 and one each for Australia, 41 England, 19 Finland, 37 Ghana, 43 Japan, 21 Scotland, 22 Spain, 40 and 25 countries across Europe. 23 The studies varied in how they defined and analysed unpaid labour.…”

“…23 The studies varied in how they defined and analysed unpaid labour. Six studies defined unpaid labour as inclusive of unpaid care, 21,[35][36][37]43,44 seven studies captured and analysed housework and childcare time separately, 13,17,18,38,[40][41][42] and the remaining six studies examined only housework hours (ie, not inclusive of care). 16,19,[22][23][24]39 Mental health outcomes were self-reported using validated survey measures (Kessler Psychological Distress Scale-10, Kessler Psychological Distress Scale-6, Center for Epidemiological Studies Depression scale, General Health Questionnaire-12, Subjective Health Complaints inventory, Malaise Symptom Score, and psychological distress and wellbeing indexes; table 1) for…”

“…all but two studies that both made of use of a self-reported single-item question, one pertaining to mental or emotional condition, 36 and the other based on a previous diagnosis of a depressive illness. 35 A descriptive summary of included studies can be found in table 1.…”

“…In the evaluation of the relationship between unpaid labour time and mental health, the overall quality of evidence in the included studies was low to moderate. No study was deemed at low risk of bias overall, seven were rated as moderate, 16,18,35,38,39,43,44 seven as serious, 13,17,[22][23][24]36,37 and five as severe. 19,21,[40][41][42] Risk of bias was most severe for the confounding domain where four studies were judged as severe risk, 19,[40][41][42] five as serious, 17,[21][22][23][24] nine as moderate, 13,16,18,[35][36][37][38][39]44 and one as low, 43 with an overall domain-specific judgement of moderate.…”