Individual protein kinase C (PKC) isozymes have been implicated in many cellular responses important in lung health and disease, including permeability, contraction, migration, hypertrophy, proliferation, apoptosis, and secretion. New ideas on mechanisms that regulate PKC activity, including the identification of a novel PKC kinase, 3-phosphoinositide-dependent kinase-1 (PDK-1), that regulates phosphorylation of PKC, have been advanced. The importance of targeted translocation of PKC and isozyme-specific binding proteins (like receptors for activated C-kinase and caveolins) is well established. Phosphorylation state and localization are now thought to be key determinants of isozyme activity and specificity. New concepts on the role of individual PKC isozymes in proliferation and apoptosis are emerging. Opposing roles for selected isozymes in the same cell system have been defined. Coupling to the Wnt signaling pathway has been described. Phenotypes for PKC knockout mice have recently been reported. More specific approaches for studying PKC isozymes and their role in cell responses have been developed. Strengths and weaknesses of different experimental strategies are reviewed. Future directions for investigation are identified.

Protein kinase C (PKC) isozymes have long been implicated in carcinogenesis. However, little is known about the functional significance of these enzymes in human cancer. We recently showed that the atypical PKC (aPKC) isozyme PKCiota is overexpressed in human non-small cell lung cancer (NSCLC) cells and that PKCiota plays a critical role in the transformed growth of the human lung adenocarcinoma A549 cell line in vitro and tumorigenicity in vivo. Here we provide compelling evidence that PKCiota is an oncogene in NSCLC based on the following criteria: (a) aPKCiota is overexpressed in the vast majority of primary NSCLC tumors; (b) tumor PKCiota expression levels predict poor survival in patients with NSCLC; (c) the PKCiota gene is frequently amplified in established NSCLC cell lines and primary NSCLC tumors; (d) gene amplification drives PKCiota expression in NSCLC cell lines and primary NSCLC tumors; and (e) disruption of PKCiota signaling with a dominant negative PKCiota allele blocks the transformed growth of human NSCLC cells harboring PKCiota gene amplification. Taken together, our data provide conclusive evidence that PKCiota is required for the transformed growth of NSCLC cells and that the PKCiota gene is a target for tumor-specific genetic alteration by amplification. Interestingly, PKCiota expression predicts poor survival in NSCLC patients independent of tumor stage. Therefore, PKCiota expression profiling may be useful in identifying early-stage NSCLC patients at elevated risk of relapse. Our functional data indicate that PKCiota is an attractive target for development of novel, mechanism-based therapeutics to treat NSCLC.

SUMMARY We report that two oncogenes co-amplified on chromosome 3q26, PRKCI and SOX2, cooperate to drive a stem-like phenotype in lung squamous cell carcinoma (LSCC). PKCι phosphorylates SOX2, a master transcriptional regulator of stemness, and recruits it to the promoter of Hedgehog Acyl Transferase (HHAT), which catalyzes the rate-limiting step in Hh ligand production. PKCι-mediated SOX2 phosphorylation is required for HHAT promoter occupancy, HHAT expression, and maintenance of a stem-like phenotype. Primary LSCC tumors coordinately overexpress PKCι, SOX2, and HHAT, and require PKCι-SOX2-HHAT signaling to maintain a stem-like phenotype. Thus, PKCι and SOX2 are genetically, biochemically and functionally linked in LSCC, and together they drive tumorigenesis by establishing a cell autonomous Hh signaling axis.

Atypical protein kinase C (aPKC) isozymes function in epithelial cell polarity, proliferation, and survival and have been implicated in cellular transformation. However, the role of these enzymes in human cancer is largely unexplored. Here, we report that aPKC is highly expressed in human non-small cell lung cancer cell lines, whereas the closely related aPKC isozyme PKC is undetectable in these cells. Disruption of PKC signaling reveals that PKC is dispensable for adherent growth of non-small cell lung cancer cells but is required for transformed growth in soft agar in vitro and for tumorigenicity in vivo. Molecular dissection of signaling downstream of PKC demonstrates that Rac1 is a critical molecular target for PKC-dependent transformation, whereas PKC is not necessary for NFB activation in vitro or in vivo. Expression of the PB1 domain of PKC (PKC-(1-113)) blocks PKC-dependent Rac1 activity and inhibits cellular transformation indicating a role for this domain in the transforming activity of PKC. Taken together, our data demonstrate that PKC is a critical lung cancer gene that activates a Rac13 Pak3 Mek1,23 Erk1,2 signaling pathway required for transformed growth. Our data indicate that PKC may be an attractive molecular target for mechanism-based therapies for treatment of lung cancer.