Lignin is a major component of soil organic matter and also a rich source of carbon dioxide in soils. However, because of its complex structure and recalcitrant nature, lignin degradation is a major challenge. Efforts have been made from time to time to understand the lignin polymeric structure better and develop simpler, economical, and bio-friendly methods of degradation. Certain enzymes from specialized bacteria and fungi have been identified by researchers that can metabolize lignin and enable utilization of lignin-derived carbon sources. In this review, we attempt to provide an overview of the complexity of lignin's polymeric structure, its distribution in forest soils, and its chemical nature. Herein, we focus on lignin biodegradation by various microorganism, fungi and bacteria present in plant biomass and soils that are capable of producing ligninolytic enzymes such as lignin peroxidase (LiP), manganese peroxidase (MnP), versatile peroxidase (VP), and dye-decolorizing peroxidase (DyP). The relevant and recent reports have been included in this review.

Fabrication of solid-state nanopores and its perspectivesNanofluidics is becoming an extensively developing technique in the field of bioanalytical chemistry. Nanoscale hole embed in an insulating membrane is employed in a vast variety of sensing platforms and applications. Although, biological nanopores have several attractive characteristics, in this paper, we focused on the solid-state nanopores due to their advantages as high stability, possibility of diameter control, and ease of surface functionalizing. A detection method, based on the translocation of analyzed molecules through nanochannels under applied voltage bias and resistive pulse sensing, is well established. Nevertheless, it seems that the new detection methods like measuring of transverse electron tunneling using nanogap electrodes or optical detection can offer significant additional advantages. The aim of this review is not to cite all related articles, but highlight the steps, which in our opinion, meant important progresses in solid-state nanopore analysis. Keywords:Fabrication / Nanofluidics / Selectivity / Sensors / Solid-state nanopores / Surface charge DOI 10.1002/elps.201400612 IntroductionNanopore analysis is a young and rapidly developing discipline with incredibly versatile applications (Fig. 1A). Undoubtedly, it has the potential to considerably change the way we think about many fields of science-medicine, chemistry, and biology. It took inspiration from biological processes of molecular transport through nanoscale pores (nanopores) and utilizes this phenomenon as analytical tool. Nucleus and surface of living cells are covered with distinct types of pore-forming proteins. They mediate the transport in order to maintain cell functions. In late 70s, Sakmann and Neher patch-clamped single ion channel, one type of pore-forming membrane proteins, and for the first time they observed single channel conductance [1]. Although, their aim was to investigate cell physiology, two decades later these measurements created the basis of nanopore sensing. Second distinct group of pore-forming proteins is some bacterial exotoxins, which represents an extremely effective tool to lyse the cells. They are able to oligomerize in lipid membranes and create there a nongating permeable pore.Correspondence: Professor Rene Kizek, Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, Faculty of Agronomy, Mendel University in Brno, Zemedelska 1, CZ-613 00 Brno, Czech Republic E-Mail: kizek@sci.muni.cz Fax: +420-545-212-044Abbreviations: ALD, atomic layer deposition; EBID, electron beam-induced deposition; EBL, electron beam lithography; FIB, focused ion beam; SAM, self-assembled monolayer; SiNx, silicon-rich nitride; STM, scanning tunneling microscopy; TEM, transmission electron microscope Kasianowicz and coworkers were the first who used nanopores as a sensor [2]. They embedded a single ␣-hemolysin protein, secreted by Staphylococcus aureus (Fig. 1Ba), to a lipid bilayer and suggested that the individual nucleotides in polynucleotide chain passing through pore in electri...

BackgroundIncrease in vancomycin (Van)-resistant bacterial strains including vancomycin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus (VRSA) and lack of new effective antibiotics have become a formidable health problem.Materials and methodsWe designed a new conjugate composed of Van and a peptide Hecate (Hec; Van/Hec), and its potential antimicrobial activity was evaluated.ResultsResults from disk diffusion test, time-kill assay, determination of minimum inhibitory concentration (MIC), microscopy, and comet assay showed strong antimicrobial effects of Van/Hec against wild-type, methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA) and VRSA. Microscopy revealed that the exposure to Van/Hec results in disruption of bacterial cell integrity in all tested strains, which was not observed in case of Van or Hec alone.ConclusionOverall, we showed that the preparation of conjugates from antibiotics and biologically active peptides could help us to overcome the limitation of the use of antibiotic in the treatment of infections caused by multidrug-resistant bacteria.