In the largest sample studied to date, we measured cognitive functioning in children and adolescents with pediatric multiple sclerosis (n =187) as well as those with clinically isolated syndrome (n =44). Participants were consecutively enrolled from six United States PediatricMultiple Sclerosis Centers of Excellence. Participants had amean of 14.8 ± 2.6 years of age and an average disease duration of 1.9 ± 2.2 years. A total of 65 (35%) children with multiple sclerosis and 8 (18%) with clinically isolated syndrome met criteria for cognitive impairment. The most frequent areas involved were fine motor coordination (54%), visuomotor integration (50%), and speeded information processing (35%). A diagnosis of multiple sclerosis (odds ratio = 3.60, confidence interval = 1.07, 12.36, P = .04) and overall neurologic disability (odds ratio = 1.47, confidence interval = 1.10, 2.10, P = .03) were the only independent predictors of cognitive impairment. Cognitive impairment may occur early in these patients, and prompt recognition is critical for their care.

Background and Purpose Published cohorts of children with arterial ischemic stroke (AIS) in the 1990s to early 2000s reported five-year cumulative recurrence rates approaching 20%. Since then, utilization of antithrombotic agents for secondary stroke prevention in children has increased. We sought to determine rates and predictors of recurrent stroke in the current era. Methods The Vascular effects of Infection in Pediatric Stroke (VIPS) study enrolled 355 children with AIS at 37 international centers from 2009–2014, and followed them prospectively for recurrent stroke. Index and recurrent strokes underwent central review and confirmation, as well as central classification of stroke etiologies, including arteriopathies. Other predictors were measured via parental interview or chart review. Results Of the 355 children, 354 survived their acute index stroke, and 308 (87%) were treated with an antithrombotic medication. During a median follow-up of 2.0 years (interquartile range, 1.0–3.0), 40 children had a recurrent AIS, and none had a hemorrhagic stroke. The cumulative stroke recurrence rate was 6.8% (95% CI 4.6–10%) at one month and 12% (8.5–15%) at one year. The sole predictor of recurrence was presence of an arteriopathy, which increased the risk of recurrence 5-fold compared to an idiopathic AIS (hazard ration 5.0, 95% CI 1.8–14). The one-year recurrence rate was 32% (95% CI 18–51%) for moyamoya, 25% (12–48%) for transient cerebral arteriopathy, and 19% (8.5–40%) for arterial dissection. Conclusions Children with AIS, particularly those with arteriopathy, remain at high risk for recurrent AIS despite increased utilization of antithrombotic agents. Therapies directed at the arteriopathies themselves are needed.

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Background and Purpose Although arteriopathies are the most common cause of childhood arterial ischemic stroke (AIS), and the strongest predictor of recurrent stroke, they are difficult to diagnose. We studied the role of clinical data and follow-up imaging in diagnosing cerebral and cervical arteriopathy in children with AIS. Methods VIPS, an international prospective study, enrolled 355 cases of AIS (age 29d-18y) at 39 centers. A neuroradiologist and stroke neurologist independently reviewed vascular imaging of the brain (mandatory for inclusion) and neck to establish a diagnosis of arteriopathy (definite, possible, or absent) in 3 steps: (1) baseline imaging alone; (2) plus clinical data; (3) plus follow-up imaging. A 4-person committee, including a second neuroradiologist and stroke neurologist, adjudicated disagreements. Using the final diagnosis as the gold standard, we calculated the sensitivity and specificity of each step. Results Cases were median 7.6 years of age (IQR 2.8, 14); 56% male. The majority (52%) were previously healthy; 41% had follow-up vascular imaging. Only 56 (16%) required adjudication. The gold standard diagnosis was definite arteriopathy in 127 (36%), possible in 34 (9.6%), and absent in 194 (55%). Sensitivity was 79% at Step 1, 90% at Step 2, and 94% at Step 3; specificity was high throughout (99%, 100%, 100%), as was agreement between reviewers (Kappa 0.77, 0.81, 0.78). Conclusions Clinical data and follow-up imaging help, yet uncertainty in the diagnosis of childhood arteriopathy remains. This presents a challenge to better understanding the mechanisms underlying these arteriopathies and designing strategies for prevention of childhood AIS.