The Palaeognathae comprise the flightless ratites and the volant tinamous, and together with the Neognathae constitute the extant members of class Aves. It is commonly believed that Palaeognathae originated in Gondwana since most of the living species are found in the Southern Hemisphere [1-3]. However, this hypothesis has been questioned because the fossil paleognaths are mostly from the Northern Hemisphere in their earliest time (Paleocene) and possessed many putative ancestral characters [4]. Uncertainties regarding the origin and evolution of Palaeognathae stem from the difficulty in estimating their divergence times [1, 2] and their remarkable morphological convergence. Here, we recovered nuclear genome fragments from extinct elephant birds, which enabled us to reconstruct a reliable phylogenomic time tree for the Palaeognathae. Based on the tree, we identified homoplasies in morphological traits of paleognaths and reconstructed their morphology-based phylogeny including fossil species without molecular data. In contrast to the prevailing theories, the fossil paleognaths from the Northern Hemisphere were placed as the basal lineages. Combined with our stable divergence time estimates that enabled a valid argument regarding the correlation with geological events, we propose a new evolutionary scenario that contradicts the traditional view. The ancestral Palaeognathae were volant, as estimated from their molecular evolutionary rates, and originated during the Late Cretaceous in the Northern Hemisphere. They migrated to the Southern Hemisphere and speciated explosively around the Cretaceous-Paleogene boundary. They then extended their distribution to the Gondwana-derived landmasses, such as New Zealand and Madagascar, by overseas dispersal. Gigantism subsequently occurred independently on each landmass.

Red-snow algae are red-pigmented unicellular algae that appear seasonally on the surface of thawing snow worldwide. Here, we analyse the distribution patterns of snow algae sampled from glaciers and snow patches in the Arctic and Antarctica based on nuclear ITS2 sequences, which evolve rapidly. The number of phylotypes is limited in both polar regions, and most are specific to either the Arctic or Antarctica. However, the bipolar phylotypes account for the largest share (37.3%) of all sequences, suggesting that red-algal blooms in polar regions may comprise mainly cosmopolitan phylotypes but also include endemic organisms, which are distributed either in the Arctic or Antarctica.

Cryoconites are microbial aggregates commonly found on glacier surfaces where they tend to take spherical, granular forms. While it has been postulated that the microbes in cryoconite granules play an important role in glacier ecosystems, information on their community structure is still limited, and their functions remain unclear. Here, we present evidence for the occurrence of nitrogen cycling in cryoconite granules on a glacier in Central Asia. We detected marker genes for nitrogen fixation, nitrification and denitrification in cryoconite granules by digital polymerase chain reaction (PCR), while digital reverse transcription PCR analysis revealed that only marker genes for nitrification and denitrification were abundantly transcribed. Analysis of isotope ratios also indicated the occurrence of nitrification; nitrate in the meltwater on the glacier surface was of biological origin, while nitrate in the snow was of atmospheric origin. The predominant nitrifiers on this glacier belonged to the order Nitrosomonadales, as suggested by amoA sequences and 16S ribosomal RNA pyrosequencing analysis. Our results suggest that the intense carbon and nitrogen cycles by nitrifiers, denitrifiers and cyanobacteria support abundant and active microbes on the Asian glacier.

Aim Cryoconite, a microbe‐mineral aggregate found on glaciers worldwide, is formed by microbial phototrophs, principally cyanobacteria. Despite their ecological importance in supraglacial environments, the phylogeographical distributions of supraglacial cyanobacteria are poorly understood. Here, we investigate the biogeographical distribution of cyanobacteria on glaciers in the Antarctic, Arctic and Asia. Location Glaciers in the Antarctic, Arctic and Asia. Methods We analysed contiguous sequences of 16S rRNA genes and 16S–23S internal transcribed spacer (ITS) regions, determined by a long read strategy and single‐filament PCR analysis in 38 glacial samples. We analysed cyanobacterial distribution patterns and genetic differentiation. Results The cyanobacterial 16S rRNA gene sequences were grouped into 20 operational taxonomic units (OTUs), and the six major OTUs that accounted for 88% of sequences were distributed broadly from polar to Asian glaciers, suggesting that they are cosmopolitan at the species level. However, analysis of the more variable ITS region revealed geographical differentiation at the strain level. Nineteen OTUs, including the six major OTUs, showed considerable genetic differentiation among geographical regions; at the population level, they are, thus, geographically restricted. Only one of the phylotype exhibits a population structure which does not show a relationship with geographical distribution, suggesting that is cosmopolitan, even at the strain level. Main conclusions Our 16S rRNA gene analyses suggest a global distribution of species of cyanobacteria colonizing glacier surfaces; however, the 16S–23S ITS regions revealed that most of the phylotypes are fundamentally endemic to particular areas at the population level and indicate limited migration among regions. Our result suggests that selection pressures among geographical regions are strong driving forces shaping genetic structure in cyanobacteria.