Importance Although previous reports have linked preterm birth with insulin resistance in children and adults, it is not known whether altered insulin homeostasis is detectable at birth and tracks from birth onwards. Objective To investigate whether preterm birth is associated with elevated plasma insulin levels at birth and whether this association persists into early childhood. Design, Setting, and Participation A prospective birth cohort of 1358 children recruited at birth from 1998 to 2010 and followed prospectively from 2005 to 2012 at the Boston Medical Center, Boston, MA. Main Outcome Measures Random plasma insulin levels were measured at two time points: at birth (cord blood) and in early childhood (venous blood) (median age (25th–75th percentile): 1.4 (0.8–3.3) years) among four gestational age groups: term (≥37 weeks), and further grouped into full term (≥39 weeks) and early term (37–38 weeks); preterm (<37 weeks), and further grouped into late preterm (34–36 weeks) and early preterm (<34 weeks). Results The geometric mean (95% confidence interval(CI)) of insulin levels for full term, early term, late preterm and early preterm births was 9.2(8.4–10.0), 10.3(9.3–11.5), 13.2(11.8–14.8) and 18.9(16.6–21.4) µU/ml, respectively at birth, and 11.2(10.3–12.0), 12.4(11.3–13.6), 13.3(11.9–14.8) and 14.6(12.6–16.9) µU/ml, respectively in early childhood. At birth, insulin levels were 1.13(95% CI: 0.97–1.28), 1.45(95%CI: 1.25–1.65) and 2.05(95%CI: 1.69–2.42) folds higher for early term, late preterm and early preterm, respectively, than those born full term. In early childhood, plasma random insulin levels in those born early term, late preterm and early preterm were 1.12(95%CI: 0.99–1.25), 1.19(95%CI: 1.02–1.35), and 1.31(95%CI: 1.10–1.52) folds higher, respectively, than those born full term. The association was attenuated after adjustment for postnatal weight gain and was not significant after adjustment for insulin levels at birth. Children ranked in the top insulin tertile at birth were more likely to remain in the top tertile in early childhood relative to children ranked in the lowest tertile (41.2% vs. 28.6%). Conclusion and Relevance There was an inverse association between gestational age and elevated plasma insulin levels at birth and in early childhood. The implications for future development of insulin resistance and type 2 diabetes warrant further investigation.

We evaluated the single and combined effects of introducing a motivational video and peer counseling into four matched WIC clinics on breastfeeding initiation and continuation at 7-10 days among African-American WIC participants. Of the 242 women with complete data, 48% initiated breastfeeding, but only 31% were still breastfeeding at 7-10 days. Initiation was associated with cesarean delivery, infant feeding instruction, no artificial milk discharge pack, attending the peer counselor only-intervention site, and intention to breastfeed. Continuation was influenced by infant feeding instruction, no artificial milk discharge pack, and intention to breastfeed. Overall, trends toward a positive impact of the breastfeeding promotion activities were evident but weak, and largely gone by 7-10 days postpartum.

To examine how individuals within a woman's life influence her infant feeding intention, we interviewed 441 African-American women on the breastfeeding attitudes and experiences of their friends, relatives, mother, and the baby's father. Women were interviewed at entry into prenatal care at clinics associated with one of four Baltimore WIC clinics chosen for a breastfeeding promotion project. Qualitative data were also collected among 80 women. Friends and "other" relatives were not influential. Grandmothers' opinions and experiences were important, but their influence was reduced after considering the opinion of the baby's father. The opinion of the woman's doctor was an independent predictor of infant feeding intention. Breastfeeding promotion programs should recognize the separate influence of fathers, health providers, and grandmothers in women's infant feeding decisions.

The infant feeding preferences of significant others have been shown to influence a pregnant woman's breastfeeding decision. Many researchers and policy makers are calling for the inclusion of a woman's significant other in the counseling and education of pregnant women regarding breastfeeding. This study reports on the impact of the significant other's infant feeding preferences and beliefs on a woman's intention to breastfeed, her initiation and successful initiation (longer than seven days) of breastfeeding. "Significant other" was defined as the person whom the pregnant woman reported as the one whose opinion "mattered the most to her" regarding feeding her infant. A randomly selected sub-sample of 133 women and their significant others was chosen from a larger infant feeding study. This sub-sample was heterogeneous with respect to age, education, and marital status. The women were interviewed during their third trimester of pregnancy and again at 7-10 days postpartum. Their significant others (71 percent baby's father and 29 percent baby's maternal grandmother), were interviewed during the woman's third trimester of pregnancy. Results indicate that a woman's intention to breastfeed is strongly and positively affected by the significant other's infant feeding preferences, initiation of breastfeeding is mediated through intention to breastfeed, and successful initiation of breastfeeding is also mediated through intention and is uniquely dependent on the pregnant woman's self-efficacy.