CEM/MTX is a subline of human CCRF-CEM leukemia cells which displays >200-fold resistance to methotrexate (MTX) due to defective transport via the reduced folate carrier (RFC). CEM/MTX-low folate (LF) cells, derived by a gradual deprivation of folic acid from 2.3 M to 2 nM (LF) in the cell culture medium of CEM/MTX cells, resulted in a >20-fold overexpression of a structurally altered RFC featuring; 1) a wild type K m value for MTX transport but a 31-fold and 9-fold lower K m values for folic acid and leucovorin, respectively, relative to wild type RFC; 2) a 10-fold RFC1 gene amplification along with a >20-fold increased expression of the main 3.1-kilobase RFC1 mRNA; 3) a marked stimulation of MTX transport by anions (i.e. chloride); and 4) a G 3 A mutation at nucleotide 227 of the RFC cDNA in both CEM/MTX-LF and CEM/MTX, resulting in a lysine for glutamate substitution at amino acid residue 45 predicted to reside within the first transmembrane domain of the human RFC. Upon transfer of CEM/MTX-LF cells to folate-replete medium (2.3 M folic acid), the more efficient folic acid uptake in CEM/MTX-LF cells resulted in a 7-and 24-fold elevated total folate pool compared with CEM and CEM/MTX cells, respectively (500 versus 69 and 21 pmol/mg of protein, respectively). This markedly elevated intracellular folate pool conferred a novel mechanism of resistance to polyglutamatable (e.g. ZD1694, DDATHF, and AG2034) and lipophilic antifolates (e.g. trimetrexate and pyrimethamine) by abolishing their polyglutamylation and circumventing target enzyme inhibition.

Members of the multidrug resistance protein family, notably MRP1-4/ABCC1-4, and the breast cancer resistance protein BCRP/ABCG2 have been recognized as cellular exporters for the folate antagonist methotrexate (MTX). Here we show that MRP5/ABCC5 is also an antifolate and folate exporter based on the following evidence:

A novel cytidine analog fluorocyclopentenylcytosine (RX-3117; TV-1360) was characterized for its cytotoxicity in a 59-cell line panel and further characterized for cytotoxicity, metabolism and mechanism of action in 15 additional cancer cell lines, including gemcitabine-resistant variants. In both panels sensitivity varied 75-fold (IC50: 0.4- > 30 μM RX-3117). RX-3117 showed a different sensitivity profile compared to cyclopentenyl-cytosine (CPEC) and azacytidine, substrates for uridine-cytidine-kinase (UCK). Dipyridamole, an inhibitor of the equilibrative-nucleoside-transporter protected against RX-3117. Uridine and cytidine protected against RX-3117, but deoxycytidine (substrate for deoxycytidine-kinase [dCK]) not, although it protected against gemcitabine, demonstrating that RX-3117 is a substrate for UCK and not for dCK. UCK activity was abundant in all cell lines, including the gemcitabine-resistant variants. RX-3117 was a very poor substrate for cytidine deaminase (66,000-fold less than gemcitabine). RX-3117 was rapidly metabolised to its nucleotides predominantly the triphosphate, which was highest in the most sensitive cells (U937, A2780) and lowest in the least sensitive (CCRF-CEM). RX-3117 did not significantly affect cytidine and uridine nucleotide pools. Incorporation of RX-3117 into RNA and DNA was higher in sensitive A2780 and low in insensitive SW1573 cells. In sensitive U937 cells 1 μM RX-3117 resulted in 90% inhibition of RNA synthesis but 100 μM RX-3117 was required in A2780 and CCRF-CEM cells. RX-3117 at IC50 values did not affect the integrity of RNA. DNA synthesis was completely inhibited in sensitive U937 cells at 1 μM, but in other cells even higher concentrations only resulted in a partial inhibition. At IC50 values RX-3117 downregulated the expression of DNA methyltransferase. In conclusion, RX-3117 showed a completely different sensitivity profile compared to gemcitabine and CPEC, its uptake is transporter dependent and is activated by UCK. RX-3117 is incorporated into RNA and DNA, did not affect RNA integrity, depleted DNA methyltransferase and inhibited RNA and DNA synthesis. Nucleotide formation is related with sensitivity.

Objective: To determine whether overexpression of cell membrane associated drug efflux pumps belonging to the family of ATP binding cassette (ABC) proteins contributes to a diminished efficacy of sulfasalazine (SSZ) after prolonged cellular exposure to this disease modifying antirheumatic drug (DMARD). Methods: A model system of human T cells (CEM) was used to expose cells in vitro to increasing concentrations of SSZ for a period of six months. Cells were then characterised for the expression of drug efflux pumps: P-glycoprotein (Pgp, ABCB1), multidrug resistance protein 1 (MRP1, ABCC1), and breast cancer resistance protein (BCRP, ABCG2). Results: Prolonged exposure of CEM cells to SSZ provoked resistance to SSZ as manifested by a 6.4-fold diminished antiproliferative effect of SSZ compared with parental CEM cells. CEM cells resistant to SSZ (CEM/SSZ) showed a marked induction of ABCG2/BCRP, Pgp expression was not detectable, while MRP1 expression was even down regulated. A functional role of ABCG2 in SSZ resistance was demonstrated by 60% reversal of SSZ resistance by the ABCG2 blocker Ko143. Release of the proinflammatory cytokine tumour necrosis factor a (TNFa) was threefold higher in CEM/SSZ cells than in CEM cells. Moreover, twofold higher concentrations of SSZ were required to inhibit TNFa release from CEM/SSZ cells compared with CEM cells. Conclusion: Collectively, ABCG2 induction, augmented TNFa release, and less efficient inhibition of TNFa production by SSZ may contribute to diminished efficacy after prolonged exposure to SSZ. These results warrant further clinical studies to verify whether drug efflux pumps, originally identified for their roles in cytostatic drug resistance, can also be induced by SSZ or other DMARDs.

Folate cofactors serve as one-carbon donors in the de novo biosynthesis of purines and thymidylate (1). As such, normal and neoplastic dividing cells have an absolute folate requirement for DNA replication (1). Disruption of folate biosynthesis with folic acid antagonists (i.e. antifolates) is the pharmacological basis for the antitumor activity of methotrexate (MTX) 1 and various antifolates (2). Because mammalian cells are devoid of folate biosynthesis, they rely on folate vitamin uptake from exogenous sources. Membrane transport of folates and MTX is mediated by several systems (3, 4): (a) the reduced folate carrier (RFC) is the major uptake route that functions as a bi-directional anion exchanger (5, 6) taking up folates through an antiport exchange mechanism with intracellular organic phosphates (7); (b) folate receptors mediate the unidirectional uptake of folate cofactors into mammalian cells via an endocytotic process (8); and (c) an apparently independent transport system with optimal folate uptake activity at low pH (9 -11).Apart from RFC, efflux of folates and MTX (12, 13) is mediated by multidrug resistance proteins (MRP) MRP1-4 (14 -19), which belong to the ATP-binding cassette superfamily (20,21). Members of the MRP family, currently comprising nine genes (i.e. MRP1-9), function as ATP-driven efflux transporters of various natural product anions and acidic charged drug conjugates (14, 15). Mammalian cells transfected with MRP1-4 accumulate decreased levels of MTX and consequently display resistance to this drug, particularly upon short term drug exposure (16 -19). Membrane vesicles isolated from MRP1-and MRP2-transfected cells exhibit ATP-dependent transport of MTX (16). Detailed kinetic analysis of folic acid, leucovorin (LCV; 5-formyl-tetrahydrofolate) and MTX transport into MRP1-and MRP3-rich membrane vesicles reveals K m values in the low millimolar range (22). Hence, the free intracellular level of folates and antifolates including MTX is determined by the net activities of these influx (i.e. RFC) and efflux (RFC and MRP) transport pathways.CEM-7A is a human leukemia CCRF-CEM subline previously established by gradual deprivation of LCV from the growth medium (23), resulting in RFC gene amplification (24) and carrier overexpression (23,24). Consequently, CEM-7A cells displayed a marked increase in the influx of MTX and LCV accompanied by a comparable increase in the steady-state transmembrane gradient of MTX (23). Surprisingly, however, there was no increase in the efflux rate constant for MTX (23). This is in contrast with previous studies (25) 1 The abbreviations used are: MTX, methotrexate; MRP, multidrug resistance protein; RFC, reduced folate carrier; LCV, Leucovorin (5-formyl-tetrahydrofolate); TMQ, trimetrexate; BCRP, breast cancer resistance protein; Pgp, P-glycoprotein; NHS-MTX, N-hydroxysuccinimide ester of MTX; AM, acetoxymethyl ester; HBS, Hepes-buffered saline.