No abstract

Salivary impairments and high levels of CHGA are associated with T2DM patients. In addition, CGHA polymorphisms might be associated with salivary gland hypofunction and higher salivary CHGA production in T2DM patients. This could be a significant insight to establish a role for salivary CHGA as a potential clinical biomarker to T2DM.

Aim To evaluate the antimicrobial and immunomodulatory activity of double antibiotic paste (DAP) in an in vitro infection model. Methodology The minimum inhibitory and bactericidal concentrations (MIC and MBC) and the antibiofilm activities (TTC assay) of DAP and its components (ciprofloxacin and metronidazole) were evaluated against Staphylococcus aureus and Enterococcus faecalis compared with triple antibiotic paste (TAP). The cellular viability of RAW 264.7 macrophages (24 and 72 h) and L929 fibroblasts (48 and 72 h) was evaluated by MTT. Furthermore, the production of TNF‐α, IL‐12, IL‐6, IL‐1α, IL‐10 and NO (on RAW 264.7), besides IL‐6, TGF‐β and NO (on L929), stimulated with DAP in baseline and associated with heat‐killed microbial‐antigen conditions was measured by ELISA and Griess reaction. Data were analysed using the one‐way ANOVA test with Bonferroni's corrections. Results The MBC of pharmacopoeia DAP was similar to TAP for E. faecalis (0.25 μg.  mL−1) and lower for S. aureus (DAP 1 μg. mL−1 and TAP 2 μg. mL−1; p < .001). Ciprofloxacin was the most effective antibiofilm drug from the pastes (35% of reduction for E. faecalis and S. aureus; p < .0001), and both pastes had a similar antibiofilm eradication against both biofilm species (29% and 35% for S. aureus and 76% and 85% for E. faecalis; p < .0001). DAP was cytotoxic against the tested cells. DAP significantly upregulated IL‐1α (p < .001), IL‐6 (p < .0001), TNF‐α (p < .01) and IL‐12 (p < .05; in the absence of antigens) and significantly reduced IL‐6 (p < .0001; in the presence of HK‐S. aureus) and IL‐10 (p < .05; in the presence of both antigens) on macrophages. Furthermore, DAP upregulated IL‐6 (p < .001) and NO (p < .05; in the absence of antigens), IL‐6 (p < .001; in the presence of HK‐S. aureus) and reduced NO (p < .001; in the presence of HK‐S. aureus). Conclusions Double antibiotic paste and TAP had similar antimicrobial activity against S. aureus and E. faecalis. DAP upregulated pro‐inflammatory cytokines mainly in the absence of antigens and had pro‐ and anti‐inflammatory activity in RAW 264.7 macrophages and L929 fibroblasts in the presence of antigens involved in pulp infections.