Background Successful human reproduction depends on the fusion of a mature oocyte with a sperm cell to form a fertilized egg. The genetic events that lead to human oocyte maturation arrest are unknown. Methods We recruited a rare four-generation family with female infertility as a consequence of oocyte meiosis I arrest. We applied whole-exome and direct Sanger sequencing to an additional 23 patients following identification of mutations in a candidate gene, TUBB8. Expression of TUBB8 and all other β-tubulin isotypes was measured in human oocytes, early embryos, sperm cells and several somatic tissues by qRT-PCR. The effect of the TUBB8 mutations was assessed on α/β tubulin heterodimer assembly in vitro, on microtubule architecture in HeLa cells, on microtubule dynamics in yeast cells, and on spindle assembly in mouse and human oocytes via microinjection of the corresponding cRNAs. Results We identified seven mutations in the primate-specific gene TUBB8 that are responsible for human oocyte meiosis I arrest in seven families. TUBB8 expression is unique to oocytes and the early embryo, where this gene accounts for almost all of the expressed β-tubulin. The mutations affect the chaperone-dependent folding and assembly of the α/β-tubulin heterodimer, induce microtubule chaos upon expression in cultured cells, alter microtubule dynamics in vivo, and cause catastrophic spindle assembly defects and maturation arrest upon expression in mouse and human oocytes. Conclusions TUBB8 mutations function via dominant negative effects that massively disrupt proper microtubule behavior. TUBB8 is a key gene involved in human oocyte meiotic spindle assembly and maturation.

Phased small-interfering RNAs (phasiRNAs) are a special class of small RNAs, which are generated in 21-or 24-nt intervals from transcripts of precursor RNAs. Although phasiRNAs have been found in a range of organisms, their biological functions in plants have yet to be uncovered. Here we show that phasiRNAs generated by the photopheriod-sensetive genic male sterility 1 (Pms1) locus were associated with photoperiod-sensitive male sterility (PSMS) in rice, a germplasm that started the two-line hybrid rice breeding. The Pms1 locus encodes a long-noncoding RNA PMS1T that was preferentially expressed in young panicles. PMS1T was targeted by miR2118 to produce 21-nt phasiRNAs that preferentially accumulated in the PSMS line under long-day conditions. A single nucleotide polymorphism in PMS1T nearby the miR2118 recognition site was critical for fertility change, likely leading to differential accumulation of the phasiRNAs. This result suggested possible roles of phasiRNAs in reproductive development of rice, demonstrating the potential importance of this RNA class as regulators in biological processes.photoperiod-sensitive male sterility | long-noncoding RNA | phasiRNA

Brassinosteroids (BRs) regulate rice plant architecture, including leaf bending, which affects grain yield. Although BR signaling has been investigated in Arabidopsis thaliana, the components negatively regulating this pathway are less well understood. Here, we demonstrate that Oryza sativa LEAF and TILLER ANGLE INCREASED CONTROLLER (LIC) acts as an antagonistic transcription factor of BRASSINAZOLE-RESISTANT 1 (BZR1) to attenuate the BR signaling pathway. The gain-of-function mutant lic-1 and LIC–overexpressing lines showed erect leaves, similar to BZR1–depleted lines, which indicates the opposite roles of LIC and BZR1 in regulating leaf bending. Quantitative PCR revealed LIC transcription rapidly induced by BR treatment. Image analysis and immunoblotting showed that upon BR treatment LIC proteins translocate from the cytoplasm to the nucleus in a phosphorylation-dependent fashion. Phosphorylation assay in vitro revealed LIC phosphorylated by GSK3–like kinases. For negative feedback, LIC bound to the core element CTCGC in the BZR1 promoter on gel-shift and chromatin immunoprecipitation assay and repressed its transcription on transient transformation assay. LIC directly regulated target genes such as INCREASED LEAF INCLINATION 1 (ILI1) to oppose the action of BZR1. Repression of LIC in ILI1 transcription in protoplasts was partially rescued by BZR1. Phenotypic analysis of the crossed lines depleted in both LIC and BZR1 suggested that BZR1 functionally depends on LIC. Molecular and physiology assays revealed that LIC plays a dominant role at high BR levels, whereas BZR1 is dominant at low levels. Thus, LIC regulates rice leaf bending as an antagonistic transcription factor of BZR1. The phenotypes of lic-1 and LIC–overexpressing lines in erect leaves contribute to ideal plant architecture. Improving this phenotype may be a potential approach to molecular breeding for high yield in rice.

Recoding a stop codon to an amino acid may afford orthogonal genetic systems for biosynthesizing new protein and organism properties. Although reassignment of stop codons has been found in extant organisms, a model organism is lacking to investigate the reassignment process and to direct code evolution. Complete reassignment of a stop codon is precluded by release factors (RFs), which recognize stop codons to terminate translation. Here we discovered that RF1 could be unconditionally knocked out from various Escherichia coli stains, demonstrating that the reportedly essential RF1 is generally dispensable for the E. coli species. The apparent essentiality of RF1 was found to be caused by the inefficiency of a mutant RF2 in terminating all UAA stop codons; a wild type RF2 was sufficient for RF1 knockout. The RF1-knockout strains were autonomous and unambiguously reassigned UAG to encode natural or unnatural amino acids (Uaas) at multiple sites, affording a previously unavailable model for studying code evolution and a unique host for exploiting Uaas to evolve new biological functions.