IntroductionDendritic cells (DCs) are antigen (Ag)-presenting cells (APCs) that function as biosensors of the cellular microenvironment by detecting the presence of signals that determine T-cell tolerance or immunity. 1,2 To accomplish this task, DCs acquire extracellular Ags by receptor-mediated endocytosis, macropinocytosis, or phagocytosis [3][4][5] ; by incorporation of microvesicles shed from the surface of neighboring cells, 6,7 and by their recently described interaction with nanovesicles (Յ 100 nm) termed "exosomes." [8][9][10][11][12] Exosomes are formed by reverse budding of the membrane of late endosomes [13][14][15] or multivesicular bodies (MVBs) and are released to the extracellular space by fusion of MVB with the plasma membrane. [13][14][15] Originally described in neoplastic cell lines, 16 exosomes also are produced by leukocytes and epithelial cells. [17][18][19][20][21][22] Although the function of exosomes still is poorly understood, exosomes are a source of Ag for APCs and participate in Ag presentation to T lymphocytes. 11,12 High concentrations of exosomes expressing major histocompatibility complex (MHC) and costimulatory molecules activate T-cell clones and T-cell lines weakly 10,13 and fail to stimulate naive T cells. 9,11 This impaired naive T-cell stimulatory ability of exosomes has been attributed to their low T-cell receptor-cross-linking capacity (inadequate for naive T-cell activation) and their small size and membrane composition. 10 However, in the presence of DCs, exosomes increase their ability to stimulate T cells. 10,11,23,24 The mechanism of interaction of extracellular exosomes with DCs is unknown. Although there is evidence that exosomes may transfer functional MHC-I/peptide complexes to DCs, 24 it is unclear whether exosomes cluster or fuse with DCs or if they are internalized and processed, as occurs with vesicles derived from apoptotic cells. [2][3][4][5] Herein we demonstrate that exosomes are internalized efficiently by DCs. Targeting of exosomes to DCs depends on ligands on the exosome and DC surface and is independent of complement factors. Once internalized by DCs, exosomes are sorted into recycling endosomes and then through late endosomes/lysosomes. By this mechanism, DCs process and present peptides derived from the internalized exosomes to T cells. In vivo, blood-borne exosomes are captured by DCs and specialized phagocytes of the spleen and by hepatic Kupffer cells. In the steady state, uptake of circulating exosomes by splenic DCs does not induce DC maturation and does not prevent CD40-induced DC activation in vivo. Our results demonstrate that blood-borne allogeneic exosomes are efficiently targeted, internalized, and processed by splenic DCs in vivo, a phenomenon followed by presentation of exosome-derived allopeptides by CD8␣ ϩ DCs to CD4 ϩ T cells. Since allogeneic exosomes are a rich source of alloMHC and are targeted and processed in vivo by host DCs (without inducing their activation), intravenous administration of donor-derived exosomes may constitut...

Dendritic cells, the most potent 'professional' antigen-presenting cells, hold promise for improving the immunotherapy of cancer. In three different well-characterized tumour models, naive mice injected with bone marrow-derived dendritic cells prepulsed with tumour-associated peptides previously characterized as being recognized by class I major histocompatibility complex-restricted cytotoxic T lymphocytes, developed a specific T-lymphocyte response and were protected against a subsequent lethal tumour challenge. Moreover, in the C3 sarcoma and the 3LL lung carcinoma murine models, treatment of animals bearing established macroscopic tumours (up to 1 cm2 in size) with tumour peptide-pulsed dendritic cells resulted in sustained tumour regression and tumour-free status in more than 80% of cases. These results support the clinical use of tumour peptide-pulsed dendritic cells as components in developing effective cancer vaccines and therapies.

Delivery of antigen in a manner that induces effective, antigen-specific immunity is a critical challenge in vaccine design. Optimal antigen presentation is mediated by professional antigen-presenting cells (APCs) capable of taking up, processing and presenting antigen to T cells in the context of costimulatory signals required for T-cell activation. Developing immunization strategies to optimize antigen presentation by dendritic cells, the most potent APCs, is a rational approach to vaccine design. Here we show that cutaneous genetic immunization with naked DNA results in potent, antigen-specific, cytotoxic T lymphocyte-mediated protective tumor immunity. This method of immunization results in the transfection of skin-derived dendritic cells, which localize in the draining lymph nodes. These observations provide a basis for further development of DNA-based vaccines and demonstrate the feasibility of genetically engineering dendritic cells in vivo.

Background: Coronaviruses pose a serious threat to global health as evidenced by Severe Acute Respiratory Syndrome (SARS), Middle East Respiratory Syndrome (MERS), and COVID-19. SARS Coronavirus (SARS-CoV), MERS Coronavirus (MERS-CoV), and the novel coronavirus, previously dubbed 2019-nCoV, and now officially named SARS-CoV-2, are the causative agents of the SARS, MERS, and COVID-19 disease outbreaks, respectively. Safe vaccines that rapidly induce potent and long-lasting virus-specific immune responses against these infectious agents are urgently needed. The coronavirus spike (S) protein, a characteristic structural component of the viral envelope, is considered a key target for vaccines for the prevention of coronavirus infection. Methods: We first generated codon optimized MERS-S1 subunit vaccines fused with a foldon trimerization domain to mimic the native viral structure. In variant constructs, we engineered immune stimulants (RS09 or flagellin, as TLR4 or TLR5 agonists, respectively) into this trimeric design. We comprehensively tested the pre-clinical immunogenicity of MERS-CoV vaccines in mice when delivered subcutaneously by traditional needle injection, or intracutaneously by dissolving microneedle arrays (MNAs) by evaluating virus specific IgG antibodies in the serum of vaccinated mice by ELISA and using virus neutralization assays. Driven by the urgent need for COVID-19 vaccines, we utilized this strategy to rapidly develop MNA SARS-CoV-2 subunit vaccines and tested their pre-clinical immunogenicity in vivo by exploiting our substantial experience with MNA MERS-CoV vaccines. Findings: Here we describe the development of MNA delivered MERS-CoV vaccines and their pre-clinical immunogenicity. Specifically, MNA delivered MERS-S1 subunit vaccines elicited strong and long-lasting antigen-specific antibody responses. Building on our ongoing efforts to develop MERS-CoV vaccines, promising immunogenicity of MNA-delivered MERS-CoV vaccines, and our experience with MNA fabrication and delivery, including clinical trials, we rapidly designed and produced clinically-translatable MNA SARS-CoV-2 subunit vaccines within 4 weeks of the identification of the SARS-CoV-2 S1 sequence. Most importantly, these MNA delivered SARS-CoV-2 S1 subunit vaccines elicited potent antigen-specific antibody responses that were evident beginning 2 weeks after immunization. Interpretation: MNA delivery of coronaviruses-S1 subunit vaccines is a promising immunization strategy against coronavirus infection. Progressive scientific and technological efforts enable quicker responses to emerging pandemics. Our ongoing efforts to develop MNA-MERS-S1 subunit vaccines enabled us to rapidly design and produce MNA SARS-CoV-2 subunit vaccines capable of inducing potent virus-specific antibody responses. Collectively, our results support the clinical development of MNA delivered recombinant protein subunit vaccines against SARS, MERS, COVID-19, and other emerging infectious diseases.