Whey, a liquid by-product, is widely accepted to contain many valuable constituents. These include especially proteins that possess important nutritional and biological properties -particularly with regard to promotion of health, as well as prevention of diseases and health conditions. Antimicrobial and antiviral actions, immune system stimulation, anticarcinogenic activity and other metabolic features have indeed been associated with such whey proteins, as a-lactalbumin, b-lactoglobulin, lactoferrin, lactoperoxidase, and bovine serum albumin. The most important advances reported to date pertaining to biological properties of whey proteins are reviewed in this communication.

a b s t r a c tThis manuscript describes the detailed characterization of edible films made from two different protein products e whey protein isolate (WPI) and whey protein concentrate (WPC), added with three levels of glycerol (Gly) e i.e. 40, 50 and 60%(w/w). The molecular structure, as well as barrier, tensile, thermal, surface and optical properties of said films were determined, in attempts to provide a better understanding of the effects of proteinaceous purity and Gly content of the feedstock. WPI films exhibited statistically lower (p < 0.05) moisture content (MC), film solubility (S), water activity, water vapor permeability (WVP), oxygen and carbon dioxide permeabilities (O 2 P and CO 2 P, respectively) and color change values, as well as statistically higher (p < 0.05) density, surface hydrophobicity, mechanical resistance, elasticity, extensibility and transparency values than their WPC counterparts, for the same content of Gly. These results are consistent with data from thermal and FTIR analyses. Furthermore, a significant increase (p < 0.05) was observed in MC, S, WVP, O 2 P, CO 2 P, weight loss and extensibility of both protein films when the Gly content increased; whereas a significant decrease (p < 0.05) was observed in thermal features, as well as in mechanical resistance and elasticity e thus leading to weaker films. Therefore, fundamental elucidation was provided on the features of WPI and WPC germane to food packaging e along with suggestions to improve the most critical ones, i.e. extensibility and WVP.

Processing of whey proteins yields several bioactive peptides that can trigger physiological effects in the human body: on the nervous system via their opiate and ileum-contracting activities; on the cardiovascular system via their antithrombotic and antihypertensive activities; on the immune system via their antimicrobial and antiviral activities; and on the nutrition system via their digestibility and hypocholesterolemic effects. The specific physiological effects, as well the mechanisms by which they are achieved and the stabilities of the peptides obtained from various whey fractions during their gastrointestinal route, are specifically discussed in this review.

Aim and Methods: Although the antimicrobial activity of extracts from several mushroom species has been reported, studies with the individual compounds present in that extracts are scarce. Herein, the antimicrobial activity of different phenolic compounds identified and quantified in mushroom species from all over the world was evaluated. Furthermore, a structure-activity relationship (SAR) analysis and molecular docking studies were performed, in order to provide insights into the mechanism of action of potential antimicrobial drugs for resistant micro-organisms. Results: 2,4-Dihydroxybenzoic and protocatechuic acids were the phenolic compounds with higher activity against the majority of Gram-negative and Gram-positive bacteria. Furthermore, phenolic compounds inhibited more MRSA than methicillin-susceptible Staphylococcus aureus. MRSA was inhibited by 2,4-dihydroxybenzoic, vanillic, syringic (MICs = 0Á5 mg ml À1 ) and p-coumaric (MIC = 1 mg ml À1

Chitosan has been reported to be a non-toxic, biodegradable antibacterial agent. The aim of this work was to elucidate the relationship between the molecular weight of chitosan and its antimicrobial activity upon two model microorganisms, one Gram-positive (Staphylococcus aureus) and one Gram-negative (Escherichia coli). Atomic force microscopy (AFM) imaging was used to obtain high-resolution images of the effect of chitosans on the bacterial morphology. The AFM measurements were correlated with viable cell numbers, which show that the two species reacted differently to the high- and low-molecular-weight chitosan derivatives. The images obtained revealed not only the antibacterial effects, but also the response strategies used by the bacteria; cell wall collapse and morphological changes reflected cell death, whereas clustering of bacteria appeared to be associated with cell survival. In addition, nanoindentation experiments with the AFM revealed mechanical changes in the bacterial cell wall induced by the treatment. The nanoindentation results suggested that despite little modification observed in the Gram-positive bacteria in morphological studies, cell wall damage had indeed occurred, since cell wall stiffness was reduced after chitooligosaccharide treatment.