Aims. The aim of this paper is twofold: 1) to investigate the properties of extragalactic dust and compare them to what is seen in the Galaxy; 2) to address in an independent way the problem of the anomalous extinction curves reported for reddened Type Ia Supernovae (SN) in connection to the environments in which they explode. Methods. The properties of the dust are derived from the wavelength dependence of the continuum polarization observed in four reddened Type Ia SN: 1986G, 2006X, 2008fp, and 2014J. The method is based on the observed fact that Type Ia SN have a negligible intrinsic continuum polarization. This and their large luminosity makes them ideal tools to probe the dust properties in extragalactic environments.Results. All four objects are characterized by exceptionally low total-to-selective absorption ratios (R V ) and display an anomalous interstellar polarization law, characterized by very blue polarization peaks. In all cases the polarization position angle is well aligned with the local spiral structure. While SN 1986G is compatible with the most extreme cases of interstellar polarization known in the Galaxy, SN 2006X, 2008fp, and 2014J show unprecedented behaviours. The observed deviations do not appear to be connected to selection effects related to the relatively large amounts of reddening characterizing the objects in the sample. Conclusions. The dust responsible for the polarization of these four SN is most likely of interstellar nature. The polarization properties can be interpreted in terms of a significantly enhanced abundance of small grains. The anomalous behaviour is apparently associated with the properties of the galactic environment in which the SN explode, rather than with the progenitor system from which they originate. For the extreme case of SN 2014J, we cannot exclude the contribution of light scattered by local material; however, the observed polarization properties require an ad hoc geometrical dust distribution.

Spectropolarimetry provides the means to probe the 3D geometries of Supernovae at early times. We report spectropolarimetric observations of the Type Ia Supernova 2012fr at four epochs: -11, -5, +2 and +24 days, with respect to B-lightcurve maximum. SN 2012fr is a normal Type Ia SN, similar to SNe 1990N, 2000cx and 2005hj (that all exhibit low velocity decline rates for the principal Si II line). The SN displays high velocity components at -11 days that are highly polarized. The polarization of these features decreases as they become weaker from -5 days. At +2 days, the polarization angles of the low velocity components of silicon and calcium are identical and oriented at 90 • relative to the high velocity Ca component. In addition to having very different velocities, the high and low velocity Ca components have orthogonal distributions in the plane of the sky. The continuum polarization for the SN at all four epochs is low < 0.1%. We conclude that the low level of continuum polarization is inconsistent with the merger-induced explosion scenario. The simple axial symmetry evident from the polarization angles of the high velocity and low velocity Ca components, along with the presence of high velocity components of Si and Ca, is perhaps more consistent with the pulsating delayed detonation model. We predict that, during the nebular phase, SN 2012fr will display blue-shifted emission lines of Fe-group elements.

We present a compilation of the geometry measures acquired using optical and IR spectroscopy and optical spectropolarimetry to probe the explosion geometry of Type Ia SNe. Polarization measurements are sensitive to asymmetries in the plane of the sky, whereas line profiles in nebular phase spectra are expected to trace asymmetries perpendicular to the plane of the sky. The combination of these two measures can overcome their respective projection effects, completely probing the 3D structures of these events. For 9 normal Type Ia SNe, we find that the polarization of Si II λ6355 at 5 days before maximum (p S i II ) is well correlated with its velocity evolution (v S i II ), implyingv S i II is predominantly due to the asymmetry of the SNe. We find only a weak correlation between the polarization of Si II and the reported velocities (v neb ) for peak emission of optical Fe II and Ni II lines in nebular spectra. Our sample is biased, with polarization measurements being only available for normal SNe which subsequently exhibited positive (i.e. redshifted) v neb . In unison these indicators are consistent with an off-centre delayed detonation, in which the outer layers are dominated by a spherical oxygen layer, mixed with an asymmetric distribution of intermediate mass elements. The combination of spectroscopic and spectropolarimetric indicators suggests a single geometric configuration for normal Type Ia SNe, with some of the diversity of observed properties arising from orientation effects.

We report two spectropolarimetric observations of SN 2005hk, which is a close copy of the "very peculiar" SN 2002cx, showing low peak luminosity, slow decline, high ionization near peak and an unusually low expansion velocity of only about 7,000 km s −1 . Further to the data presented by Chornock et al., (2006), at -4 days before maximum, we present data of this object taken on 9 November 2005 (near maximum) and 23 November (+ two weeks) that show the continuum and most of the spectral lines to be polarized at levels of about 0.2-0.3%. At both epochs the data corresponds to the Spectropolarimetric Type D1. The general low level of line polarization suggests that the line forming regions for most species observed in the spectrum have a similar shape to that of the photosphere, which deviates from a spherical symmetry by < 10%. In comparison with spectropolarimetry of Type Ia and Core-collapse SNe at similar epochs, we find that the properties of SN 2005hk are most similar to those of Type Ia SNe. In particular, we find the low levels of continuum and line polarization to indicate that the explosion mechanism is approximately spherical, with homogeneous ejecta (unlike the chemically segregated ejecta of CCSNe). We discuss the possibility that SN 2005hk was the result of the pure deflagration of a white dwarf and note the issues concerning this interpretation.

The diffuse intracluster light (ICL) contains a significant fraction of the total stellar mass in clusters of galaxies, and contributes in roughly equal proportion as the hot intracluster medium to the total baryon content of clusters. Because of the potential importance of understanding the origin of the ICL in the context of the formation and evolution of structure in the Universe, the field has recently undergone a revival both in the quality and quantity of observational and theoretical investigations. Because of cosmological dimming, the observational work has mostly concentrated on low‐redshift clusters, but clearly observations at higher redshifts can provide interesting clues about the evolution of the diffuse component. In this paper we present the first results of a programme to characterize the ICL of intermediate‐redshift clusters. We find that at z∼ 0.3, the X‐ray cluster RX J0054.0−2823 already has a significant ICL and that the fraction of the total light in the ICL and the brightest cluster galaxy (BCG) is comparable to that of similar clusters at lower redshift. We also find that the kinematics of the ICL is consistent with it being the remnant of tidally destroyed galaxies streaming in the central regions of the cluster, which has three central giant elliptical galaxies acting as an efficient ‘galaxy grinding machine’. Our cluster has a bi‐modal radial velocity distribution and thus two possible values for the velocity dispersion. We find that the cluster fits well in the correlation between BCG+ICL fraction and cluster mass for a range of velocity dispersions, leading us to question the validity of a relevant correlation between these two quantities.