Abstract-Familial hypertrophic cardiomyopathy (FHC) is an inherited autosomal dominant disease caused by mutations in sarcomeric proteins. Among these, mutations that affect myosin binding protein-C (MyBP-C), an abundant component of the thick filaments, account for 20% to 30% of all mutations linked to FHC. However, the mechanisms by which MyBP-C mutations cause disease and the function of MyBP-C are not well understood. Therefore, to assess deficits due to elimination of MyBP-C, we used gene targeting to produce a knockout mouse that lacks MyBP-C in the heart. Knockout mice were produced by deletion of exons 3 to 10 from the endogenous cardiac (c) MyBP-C gene in murine embryonic stem (ES) cells and subsequent breeding of chimeric founder mice to obtain mice heterozygous (ϩ/Ϫ) and homozygous (Ϫ/Ϫ) for the knockout allele. Wild-type (ϩ/ϩ), cMyBP-C ϩ/Ϫ , and cMyBP-C Ϫ/Ϫ mice were born in accordance with Mendelian inheritance ratios, survived into adulthood, and were fertile. Western blot analyses confirmed that cMyBP-C was absent in hearts of homozygous knockout mice. Whereas cMyBP-C ϩ/Ϫ mice were indistinguishable from wild-type littermates, cMyBP-C Ϫ/Ϫ mice exhibited significant cardiac hypertrophy. Cardiac function, assessed using 2-dimensionally guided M-mode echocardiography, showed significantly depressed indices of diastolic and systolic function only in cMyBP-C Ϫ/Ϫ mice. Ca 2ϩ sensitivity of tension, measured in single skinned myocytes, was reduced in cMyBP-C Ϫ/Ϫ but not cMyBP-C ϩ/Ϫ mice. These results establish that cMyBP-C is not essential for cardiac development but that the absence of cMyBP-C results in profound cardiac hypertrophy and impaired contractile function. Key Words: myosin binding protein-C Ⅲ heart Ⅲ myocardium Ⅲ gene knockout Ⅲ sarcomeric proteins M yosin binding protein-C (MyBP-C), also known as C-protein, 1 is a thick filament accessory protein that is present in nearly all vertebrate striated muscles but whose function is unknown. Nonetheless, there is compelling evidence to suggest that MyBP-C is a significant determinant of muscle contractile properties. In particular, cardiac MyBP-C (cMyBP-C) is a target for phosphorylation in response to various inotropic stimuli, including sympathetic stimuli that effect trisphosphorylation of cMyBP-C via cAMP-dependent protein kinase (PKA). 2 In addition, mutations of the cMyBP-C gene are a leading cause of familial hypertrophic cardiomyopathy (FHC), 3 an inherited disorder linked to mutations in cardiac contractile proteins (for review, see Bonne et al 4 and Seidman and Seidman 5 ).However, despite clues suggesting the importance of cMyBP-C to cardiac health, the function of cMyBP-C has remained enigmatic. For instance, although numerous studies have investigated effects of PKA on cardiac contractility (eg, Strang et al 6 and Patel et al 7 ), the role, if any, of cMyBP-C in mediating contractile responses to PKA has been difficult to discern. 8 -10 Similarly, the mechanisms by which cMyBP-C mutations affect cardiac function are not well understo...

Abstract-Normal cardiac function requires dynamic modulation of contraction. ␤1-Adrenergic-induced protein kinase (PK)A phosphorylation of cardiac myosin binding protein (cMyBP)-C may regulate crossbridge kinetics to modulate contraction. We tested this idea with mechanical measurements and echocardiography in a mouse model lacking 3 PKA sites on cMyBP-C, ie, cMyBP-C(t3SA). We developed the model by transgenic expression of mutant cMyBP-C with Ser-to-Ala mutations on the cMyBP-C knockout background. Western blots, immunofluorescence, and in vitro phosphorylation combined to show that non-PKA-phosphorylatable cMyBP-C expressed at 74% compared to normal wild-type (WT) and was correctly positioned in the sarcomeres. Similar expression of WT cMyBP-C at 72% served as control, ie, cMyBP-C(tWT). Skinned myocardium responded to stretch with an immediate increase in force, followed by a transient relaxation of force and finally a delayed development of force, ie, stretch activation. The rate constants of relaxation, k rel (s-1), and delayed force development, k df (s-1), in the stretch activation response are indicators of crossbridge cycling kinetics. cMyBP-C(t3SA) myocardium had baseline k rel and k df similar to WT myocardium, but, unlike WT, k rel and k df were not accelerated by PKA treatment. Reduced dobutamine augmentation of systolic function in cMyBP-C(t3SA) hearts during echocardiography corroborated the stretch activation findings. Furthermore, cMyBP-C(t3SA) hearts exhibited basal echocardiographic findings of systolic dysfunction, diastolic dysfunction, and hypertrophy. Conversely, cMyBP-C(tWT) hearts performed similar to WT. Thus, PKA phosphorylation of cMyBP-C accelerates crossbridge kinetics and loss of this regulation leads to cardiac dysfunction. Key Words: cMyBP-C Ⅲ phosphorylation Ⅲ contraction kinetics T he strength and kinetics of cardiac contraction vary on a beat-to-beat basis as a way to match cardiac output to the circulatory demands of the body. Reduced capacity to modulate contraction has long been recognized as a key feature of dysfunction in heart failure 1 and more recently in hypertrophic cardiomyopathy (HCM). 2 This study explores the possibility that phosphorylation of cardiac myosin binding protein (cMyBP)-C modulates contraction in skinned and living myocardium.MyBP-C is a component of the thick filament in striated muscle 3 and is evident as 7 to 9 bands at 43-nm intervals 4 within the center of each half-thick filament in the A-band. Its location at every third crossbridge crown, ie, every 42.9 nm 5 suggests that cMyBP-C has a regulatory role with respect to thick filament activity. Unlike the skeletal muscle isoform, cMyBP-C is readily phosphorylated by protein kinase (PK)A, 6,7 calcium calmodulin kinase (CaMK) II, 6,7 and PKC. 8,9 Phosphorylation of cMyBP-C may promote actin-myosin interactions by either relieving a structural constraint on myosin to allow closer proximity with actin 10,11 or reducing the binding of cMyBP-C to the S2 domain of myosin to allow greater flexibility...

The multisubunit (␣ 1S , ␣ 2 ͞␦, ␤ 1 , and ␥) skeletal muscle dihydropyridine receptor transduces transverse tubule membrane depolarization into release of Ca 2؉ from the sarcoplasmic reticulum, and also acts as an L-type Ca 2؉ channel. The ␣ 1S subunit contains the voltage sensor and channel pore, the kinetics of which are modified by the other subunits. To determine the role of the ␤ 1 subunit in channel activity and excitation-contraction coupling we have used gene targeting to inactivate the ␤ 1 gene. ␤ 1 -null mice die at birth from asphyxia. Electrical stimulation of ␤ 1 -null muscle fails to induce twitches, however, contractures are induced by caffeine. In isolated ␤ 1 -null myotubes, action potentials are normal, but fail to elicit a Ca 2؉ transient. L-type Ca 2؉ current is decreased 10-to 20-fold in the ␤ 1 -null cells compared with littermate controls. Immunohistochemistry of cultured myotubes shows that not only is the ␤ 1 subunit absent, but the amount of ␣ 1S in the membrane also is undetectable. In contrast, the ␤ 1 subunit is localized appropriately in dysgenic, mdg͞mdg, (␣ 1S -null) cells. Therefore, the ␤ 1 subunit may not only play an important role in the transport͞insertion of the ␣ 1S subunit into the membrane, but may be vital for the targeting of the muscle dihydropyridine receptor complex to the transverse tubule͞sarcoplasmic reticulum junction.

Abstract-Increased phosphorylation of the cardiac ryanodine receptor (RyR)2 by protein kinase A (PKA) at the phosphoepitope encompassing Ser2808 has been advanced as a central mechanism in the pathogenesis of cardiac arrhythmias and heart failure. In this scheme, persistent activation of the sympathetic system during chronic stress leads to PKA "hyperphosphorylation" of RyR2-S2808, which increases Ca 2ϩ release by augmenting the sensitivity of the RyR2 channel to diastolic Ca 2ϩ . This gain-of-function is postulated to occur with the unique participation of RyR2-S2808, and other potential PKA phosphorylation sites have been discarded. Although it is clear that RyR2 is among the first proteins in the heart to be phosphorylated by ␤-adrenergic stimulation, the functional impact of phosphorylation in excitation-contraction coupling and cardiac performance remains unclear. We used gene targeting to produce a mouse model with complete ablation of the RyR2-S2808 phosphorylation site (RyR2-S2808A). Whole-heart and isolated cardiomyocyte experiments were performed to test the role of ␤-adrenergic stimulation and PKA phosphorylation of Ser2808 in heart failure progression and cellular Ca 2ϩ handling. We found that the RyR2-S2808A mutation does not alter the ␤-adrenergic response, leaves cellular function almost unchanged, and offers no significant protection in the maladaptive cardiac remodeling induced by chronic stress. Moreover, the RyR2-S2808A mutation appears to modify single-channel activity, although modestly and only at activating [Ca 2ϩ ]. Taken together, these results reveal some of the most important effects of PKA phosphorylation of RyR2 but do not support a major role for RyR2-S2808 phosphorylation in the pathogenesis of cardiac dysfunction and failure.

MicroRNAs (miRNAs) are small, noncoding RNAs that regulate gene expression in both plants and animals. miRNA genes have been implicated in a variety of important biological processes, including development, differentiation, apoptosis, fat metabolism, viral infection, and cancer. Similar to protein-coding messenger RNAs, miRNA expression varies between tissues and developmental states. To acquire a better understanding of global miRNA expression in tissues and cells, we have developed isolation, labeling, and array procedures to measure the relative abundance of all of the known human mature miRNAs. The method relies on rapid isolation of RNA species smaller than 40 nucleotides (nt), direct and homogenous enzymatic labeling of the mature miRNAs with amine modified ribonucleotides, and hybridization to antisense DNA oligonucleotide probes. A thorough performance study showed that this miRNA microarray system can detect subfemtomole amounts of individual miRNAs from <1 mg of total RNA, with 98% correlation between independent replicates. The system has been applied to compare the global miRNA expression profiles in 26 different normal human tissues. This comprehensive analysis identified miRNAs that are preferentially expressed in one or a few related tissues and revealed that human adult tissues have unique miRNA profiles. This implicates miRNAs as important components of tissue development and differentiation. Taken together, these results emphasize the immense potential of microarrays for sensitive and high-throughput analysis of miRNA expression in normal and disease states.